# Posts Tagged solar system

## Recent Postings from solar system

### Cosmic-ray diffusion in magnetized turbulence

The problem of cosmic-ray scattering in the turbulent electromagnetic fields of the interstellar medium and the solar wind is of great importance due to the variety of applications of the resulting diffusion coefficients. Examples are diffusive shock acceleration, cosmic-ray observations, and, in the solar system, the propagation of coronal mass ejections. In recent years, it was found that the simple diffusive motion that had been assumed for decades is often in disagreement both with numerical and observational results. Here, an overview is given of the interaction processes of cosmic rays and turbulent electromagnetic fields. First, the formation of turbulent fields due to plasma instabilities is treated, where especially the non-linear behavior of the resulting unstable wave modes is discussed. Second, the analytical and the numerical side of high-energy particle propagation will be reviewed by presenting non-linear analytical theories and Monte-Carlo simulations. For the example of the solar wind, the impact of anisotropic and dynamical turbulence models will be discussed. In addition, it will be shown how further complications can be treated that arise from the large-scale magnetic field geometry and turbulent electric fields. The transport properties of energetic particles can thus be calculated for current turbulence models so that they withstand a comparison with measurements taken in the solar wind.

### A FIR-Survey of TNOs and Related Bodies

The small solar-system bodies that reside between 30 and 50 AU are often referred to as the Trans Neptunian Objects, or TNOs. A far-infrared (FIR) mission with survey capabilities, like the prospective Cryogenic Aperture Large Infrared Space Telescope Observatory (CALISTO; Goldsmith et al. 2008), offers the potential for the first time of really probing the population of TNOs, and related populations, down to moderates sizes, and out to distances exceeding 100 AU from the Sun.

### Towards a dynamics-based estimate of the extent of HR 8799's unresolved warm debris belt

In many ways, the HR8799 system resembles our Solar system more closely than any other discovered to date – albeit on a larger, younger, and more dramatic scale – featuring four giant planets and two debris belts. The first belt lies beyond the orbit of the outer planet, and mirrors our Solar system’s Edgeworth-Kuiper belt. The second belt lies interior to the orbit of the inner planet, HR8799e, and is analogous to our Asteroid Belt. With such a similar architecture, the system is a valuable laboratory for examining exoplanet dynamics, and the interaction between debris disks and planets. In recent years, HR8799′s outer disk has been relatively well characterised, primarily using the Herschel Space Observatory. In contrast, the inner disk, too close to HR8799 to be spatially resolved by Herschel, remains poorly understood. This leaves significant questions over both the location of the planetesimals responsible for producing the observed dust, and the physical properties of those grains. We have performed extensive simulations of HR8799′s inner, unresolved debris belt, using UNSW Australia’s supercomputing facility, Katana. Here, we present the results of integrations following the evolution of a belt of dynamically hot debris interior to the orbit of HR8799e, for a period of 60 Myr, using an initial population of 500,000 massless test particles. These simulations have enable the characterisation of the extent and structure of the inner belt, revealing that its outer edge must lie interior to the 3:1 mean-motion resonance with HR8799, at approximately 7.5au, and highlighting the presence of fine structure analogous to the Solar system’s Kirkwood gaps. In the future, out results will allow us to calculate a first estimate of the small-body impact rate and water delivery prospects for any potential terrestrial planet(s) that might lurk, undetected, in the inner system.

### Relationship between key events in Earth history

A model of cyclical (sinusoidal) motion of the solar system, intercepting event lines distributed at fixed intervals, explains the pattern of timings of mass extinctions, earlier glaciations, largest impact craters and the largest known extrusions of magma in the history of the Earth. The model reveals links between several sets of key events, including the end-Cretaceous and end-Ordovician extinctions with the Marinoan glaciation, and the end-Permian with the end-Serpukhovian extinctions. The model is supported by significant clusters of events and a significant reduction of impact crater size with position (sine value). The pattern of event lines is sustained to the earliest-dated impact craters (2023 and 1849 Ma) and to the origin of the solar system, close to 4567.4 Ma. The implication is that, for the entirety of its existence, the solar system has passed in a consistent manner through a predictably structured galaxy. Dark matter is a possible contender for the structure determining the event lines.

### New Paradigms For Asteroid Formation

Asteroids and meteorites provide key evidence on the formation of planetesimals in the Solar System. Asteroids are traditionally thought to form in a bottom-up process by coagulation within a population of initially km-scale planetesimals. However, new models challenge this idea by demonstrating that asteroids of sizes from 100 to 1000 km can form directly from the gravitational collapse of small particles which have organised themselves in dense filaments and clusters in the turbulent gas. Particles concentrate passively between eddies down to the smallest scales of the turbulent gas flow and inside large-scale pressure bumps and vortices. The streaming instability causes particles to take an active role in the concentration, by piling up in dense filaments whose friction on the gas reduces the radial drift compared to that of isolated particles. In this chapter we review new paradigms for asteroid formation and compare critically against the observed properties of asteroids as well as constraints from meteorites. Chondrules of typical sizes from 0.1 to 1 mm are ubiquitous in primitive meteorites and likely represent the primary building blocks of asteroids. Chondrule-sized particles are nevertheless tightly coupled to the gas via friction and are therefore hard to concentrate in large amounts in the turbulent gas. We review recent progress on understanding the incorporation of chondrules into the asteroids, including layered accretion models where chondrules are accreted onto asteroids over millions of years. We highlight in the end ten unsolved questions in asteroid formation where we expect that progress will be made over the next decade.

### Measurement of the radial velocity of the Sun as a star by means of a reflecting solar system body. The effect of the body rotation

Minor bodies of the solar system can be used to measure the spectrum of the Sun as a star by observing sunlight reflected by their surfaces. To perform an accurate measurement of the radial velocity of the Sun as a star by this method, it is necessary to take into account the Doppler shifts introduced by the motion of the reflecting body. Here we discuss the effect of its rotation. It gives a vanishing contribution only when the inclinations of the body rotation axis to the directions of the Sun and of the Earth observer are the same. When this is not the case, the perturbation of the radial velocity does not vanish and can reach up to about 2.4 m/s for an asteroid such as 2 Pallas that has an inclination of the spin axis to the plane of the ecliptic of about 30 degrees. We introduce a geometric model to compute the perturbation in the case of a uniformly reflecting body of spherical or triaxial ellipsoidal shape and provide general results to easily estimate the magnitude of the effect.

### Thorium Abundances in Solar Twins and Analogues: Implications for the Habitability of Extrasolar Planetary Systems

We present the first investigation of Th abundances in Solar twins and analogues to understand the possible range of this radioactive element and its effect on rocky planet interior dynamics and potential habitability. The abundances of the radioactive elements Th and U are key components of a planet’s energy budget, making up 30% to 50% of the Earth’s (Korenaga 2008; All\`egre et al. 2001; Schubert et al. 1980; Lyubetskaya & Korenaga 2007; The KamLAND Collaboration 2011; Huang et al. 2013). Radiogenic heat drives interior mantle convection and surface plate tectonics, which sustains a deep carbon and water cycle and thereby aides in creating Earth’s habitable surface. Unlike other heat sources that are dependent on the planet’s specific formation history, the radiogenic heat budget is directly related to the mantle concentration of these nuclides. As a refractory element, the stellar abundance of Th is faithfully reflected in the terrestrial planet’s concentration. We find that log eps Th varies from 59% to 251% that of Solar, suggesting extrasolar planetary systems may possess a greater energy budget with which to support surface to interior dynamics and thus increase their likelihood to be habitable compared to our Solar System.

### Does the Newton's gravitational constant vary sinusoidally with time? An independent test with planetary orbital motions

A sinusoidally time-varying pattern for the values of the Newton’s constant of gravitation $G$ measured in Earth-based laboratories over the latest decades has been recently reported in the literature. Its amplitude and period amount to $A_G=1.619\times 10^{-14} \textrm{kg}^{-1} \textrm{m}^3 \textrm{s}^{-2}, P_G=5.899 \textrm{yr}$, respectively. Given the fundamental role played by $G$ in the currently accepted theory of gravitation and the attempts to merge it with quantum mechanics, it is important to put to the test the hypothesis that the aforementioned harmonic variation may pertain $G$ itself in a direct and independent way. The bounds on $\dot G/G$ existing in the literature may not be extended straightforwardly to the present case since they were inferred by considering just secular variations. Thus, we numerically integrated the ad-hoc modified equations of motion of the major bodies of the Solar System by finding that the orbits of the planets would be altered by an unacceptably larger amount in view of the present-day high accuracy astrometric measurements. In the case of Saturn, its geocentric right ascension $\alpha$, declination $\delta$ and range $\rho$ would be affected up to $10^4-10^5$ milliarcseconds and $10^5$ km, respectively; the present-day residuals of such observables are as little as about $4$ milliarcseconds and $10^{-1}$ km, respectively.

### Does the Newton's gravitational constant vary sinusoidally with time? An independent test with planetary orbital motions [Cross-Listing]

A sinusoidally time-varying pattern for the values of the Newton’s constant of gravitation $G$ measured in Earth-based laboratories over the latest decades has been recently reported in the literature. Its amplitude and period amount to $A_G=1.619\times 10^{-14} \textrm{kg}^{-1} \textrm{m}^3 \textrm{s}^{-2}, P_G=5.899 \textrm{yr}$, respectively. Given the fundamental role played by $G$ in the currently accepted theory of gravitation and the attempts to merge it with quantum mechanics, it is important to put to the test the hypothesis that the aforementioned harmonic variation may pertain $G$ itself in a direct and independent way. The bounds on $\dot G/G$ existing in the literature may not be extended straightforwardly to the present case since they were inferred by considering just secular variations. Thus, we numerically integrated the ad-hoc modified equations of motion of the major bodies of the Solar System by finding that the orbits of the planets would be altered by an unacceptably larger amount in view of the present-day high accuracy astrometric measurements. In the case of Saturn, its geocentric right ascension $\alpha$, declination $\delta$ and range $\rho$ would be affected up to $10^4-10^5$ milliarcseconds and $10^5$ km, respectively; the present-day residuals of such observables are as little as about $4$ milliarcseconds and $10^{-1}$ km, respectively.

### Cosmological Tests of Gravity [Cross-Listing]

Einstein’s theory of General Relativity (GR) is tested accurately within the local universe i.e., the Solar System, but this leaves open the possibility that it is not a good description at the largest scales in the Universe. The standard model of cosmology assumes GR as the theory to describe gravity on all scales. In 1998, astronomers made the surprising discovery that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating, not slowing down. This late-time acceleration of the Universe has become the most challenging problem in theoretical physics. Within the framework of GR, the acceleration would originate from an unknown dark energy. Alternatively, it could be that there is no dark energy and GR itself is in error on cosmological scales. The standard model of cosmology is based on a huge extrapolation of our limited knowledge of gravity. This discovery of the late time acceleration of the Universe may require us to revise the theory of gravity and the standard model of cosmology based on GR. We will review recent progress in constructing modified gravity models as an alternative to dark energy and developing cosmological tests of gravity.

### Cosmological Tests of Gravity [Cross-Listing]

Einstein’s theory of General Relativity (GR) is tested accurately within the local universe i.e., the Solar System, but this leaves open the possibility that it is not a good description at the largest scales in the Universe. The standard model of cosmology assumes GR as the theory to describe gravity on all scales. In 1998, astronomers made the surprising discovery that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating, not slowing down. This late-time acceleration of the Universe has become the most challenging problem in theoretical physics. Within the framework of GR, the acceleration would originate from an unknown dark energy. Alternatively, it could be that there is no dark energy and GR itself is in error on cosmological scales. The standard model of cosmology is based on a huge extrapolation of our limited knowledge of gravity. This discovery of the late time acceleration of the Universe may require us to revise the theory of gravity and the standard model of cosmology based on GR. We will review recent progress in constructing modified gravity models as an alternative to dark energy and developing cosmological tests of gravity.

### Cosmological Tests of Gravity [Cross-Listing]

Einstein’s theory of General Relativity (GR) is tested accurately within the local universe i.e., the Solar System, but this leaves open the possibility that it is not a good description at the largest scales in the Universe. The standard model of cosmology assumes GR as the theory to describe gravity on all scales. In 1998, astronomers made the surprising discovery that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating, not slowing down. This late-time acceleration of the Universe has become the most challenging problem in theoretical physics. Within the framework of GR, the acceleration would originate from an unknown dark energy. Alternatively, it could be that there is no dark energy and GR itself is in error on cosmological scales. The standard model of cosmology is based on a huge extrapolation of our limited knowledge of gravity. This discovery of the late time acceleration of the Universe may require us to revise the theory of gravity and the standard model of cosmology based on GR. We will review recent progress in constructing modified gravity models as an alternative to dark energy and developing cosmological tests of gravity.

### Cosmological Tests of Gravity

Einstein’s theory of General Relativity (GR) is tested accurately within the local universe i.e., the Solar System, but this leaves open the possibility that it is not a good description at the largest scales in the Universe. The standard model of cosmology assumes GR as the theory to describe gravity on all scales. In 1998, astronomers made the surprising discovery that the expansion of the Universe is accelerating, not slowing down. This late-time acceleration of the Universe has become the most challenging problem in theoretical physics. Within the framework of GR, the acceleration would originate from an unknown dark energy. Alternatively, it could be that there is no dark energy and GR itself is in error on cosmological scales. The standard model of cosmology is based on a huge extrapolation of our limited knowledge of gravity. This discovery of the late time acceleration of the Universe may require us to revise the theory of gravity and the standard model of cosmology based on GR. We will review recent progress in constructing modified gravity models as an alternative to dark energy and developing cosmological tests of gravity.

### Comets as collisional fragments of a primordial planetesimal disk

The Rosetta mission and its exquisite measurements have revived the debate on whether comets are pristine planetesimals or collisionally evolved objects. We investigate the collisional evolution experienced by the precursors of current comet nuclei during the early stages of the Solar System, in the context of the so-called "Nice Model". We consider two environments for the collisional evolution: (1) the trans-planetary planetesimal disk, from the time of gas removal until the disk was dispersed by the migration of the ice giants, and (2) the dispersing disk during the time that the scattered disk was formed. Simulations have been performed, using different methods in the two cases, to find the number of destructive collisions typically experienced by a comet nucleus of 2km radius. In the widely accepted scenario, where the dispersal of the planetesimal disk occurred at the time of the Late Heavy Bombardment about 4Gy ago, comet-sized planetesimals have a very small chance to survive against destructive collisions in the disk. On the extreme assumption that the disk was dispersed directly upon gas removal, there is a chance for a significant fraction of the planetesimals to remain intact. However, these survivors would still bear the marks of many non-destructive impacts. Thus, the Nice Model of Solar System evolution predicts that typical km-sized comet nuclei are predominantly fragments resulting from collisions experienced by larger parent bodies. An important goal for further research is to investigate, whether the observed properties of comet nuclei are compatible with such a collisional origin.

### The Second Post-Newtonian Light Propagation and Its Astrometric Measurement in the SOLAR SYSTEM

The relativistic theories of light propagation are generalized by introducing two new parameters $\varsigma$ and $\eta$ in the second post-Newtonian (2PN) order, in addition to the parameterized post-Newtonian parameters $\gamma$ and $\beta$. This new 2PN parameterized (2PPN) formalism includes the non-stationary gravitational fields and the influences of all kinds of relativistic effects. The multipolar components of gravitating bodies are taken into account as well at the first post-Newtonian order. The equations of motion and their solutions of this 2PPN light propagation problem are obtained. Started from the definition of a measurable quantity, a gauge-invariant angle between the directions of two incoming photons for a differential measurement in astrometric observation is discussed and its formula is derived. For a precision level of a few microacrsecond ($\mu$as) for space astrometry missions in the near future, we further consider a model of angular measurement, LATOR-like missions. In this case, all terms with aimed at the accuracy of $\sim1\mu$as are estimated.

### Nanodust detection between 1 and 5 AU by using Cassini wave measurements

The solar system contains solids of all sizes, ranging from km-size bodies to nano-sized particles. Nanograins have been detected in situ in the Earth’s atmosphere, near cometary and giant planet environments, and more recently in the solar wind at 1 AU. These latter nano grains are thought to be formed in the inner solar system dust cloud, mainly through collisional break-up of larger grains and are then picked-up and accelerated by the magnetized solar wind because of their large charge-to-mass ratio. In the present paper, we analyze the low frequency bursty noise identified in the Cassini radio and plasma wave data during the spacecraft cruise phase inside Jupiter’s orbit. The magnitude, spectral shape and waveform of this broadband noise is consistent with the signature of nano particles impinging at nearby the solar wind speed on the spacecraft surface. Nanoparticles were observed whenever the radio instrument was turned on and able to detect them, at different heliocentric distances between Earth and Jupiter, suggesting their ubiquitous presence in the heliosphere. We analyzed the radial dependence of the nano dust flux with heliospheric distance and found that it is consistent with the dynamics of nano dust originating from the inner heliosphere and picked-up by the solar wind. The contribution of the nano dust produced in asteroid belt appears to be negligible compared to the trapping region in the inner heliosphere. In contrast, further out, nano dust are mainly produced by the volcanism of active moons such as Io and Enceladus.

### Prudence in estimating coherence between planetary, solar and climate oscillations

There are claims that there is correlation between the speed of center of mass of the solar system and the global temperature anomaly. This is partly grounded in data analysis and partly in a priori expectations. The magnitude squared coherence function is the proper measure for testing such claims. It is not hard to produce high coherence estimates at periods around 15–22 and 50–60 years between these data sets. This is done in two independent ways, by wavelets and by a periodogram method. But does a coherence of high value mean that there is coherence of high significance? In order to investigate that, four different measures for significance are studied. Due to the periodic nature of the data, only Monte Carlo simulation based on a non-parametric random phase method is appropriate. None of the high values of coherence then turn out to be significant. Coupled with a lack of a physical mechanism that can connect these phenomena, the planetary hypothesis is therefore dismissed.

### K-mouflage gravity models that pass Solar System and cosmological constraints

We show that Solar System tests can place very strong constraints on K-mouflage models of gravity, which are coupled scalar field models with nontrivial kinetic terms that screen the fifth force in regions of large gravitational acceleration. In particular, the bounds on the anomalous perihelion of the Moon imposes stringent restrictions on the K-mouflage Lagrangian density, which can be met when the contributions of higher order operators in the static regime are sufficiently small. The bound on the rate of change of the gravitational strength in the Solar System constrains the coupling strength $\beta$ to be smaller than $0.1$. These two bounds impose tighter constraints than the results from the Cassini satellite and Big Bang Nucleosynthesis. Despite the Solar System restrictions, we show that it is possible to construct viable models with interesting cosmological predictions. In particular, relative to $\Lambda$-CDM, such models predict percent level deviations for the clustering of matter and the number density of dark matter haloes. This makes these models predictive and testable by forthcoming observational missions.

### K-mouflage gravity models that pass Solar System and cosmological constraints [Cross-Listing]

We show that Solar System tests can place very strong constraints on K-mouflage models of gravity, which are coupled scalar field models with nontrivial kinetic terms that screen the fifth force in regions of large gravitational acceleration. In particular, the bounds on the anomalous perihelion of the Moon imposes stringent restrictions on the K-mouflage Lagrangian density, which can be met when the contributions of higher order operators in the static regime are sufficiently small. The bound on the rate of change of the gravitational strength in the Solar System constrains the coupling strength $\beta$ to be smaller than $0.1$. These two bounds impose tighter constraints than the results from the Cassini satellite and Big Bang Nucleosynthesis. Despite the Solar System restrictions, we show that it is possible to construct viable models with interesting cosmological predictions. In particular, relative to $\Lambda$-CDM, such models predict percent level deviations for the clustering of matter and the number density of dark matter haloes. This makes these models predictive and testable by forthcoming observational missions.

### Dynamical Evolution of Multi-Resonant Systems: the Case of GJ876

The GJ876 system was among the earliest multi-planetary detections outside of the Solar System, and has long been known to harbor a resonant pair of giant planets. Subsequent characterization of the system revealed the presence of an additional Neptune mass object on an external orbit, locked in a three body Laplace mean motion resonance with the previously known planets. While this system is currently the only known extrasolar example of a Laplace resonance, it differs from the Galilean satellites in that the orbital motion of the planets is known to be chaotic. In this work, we present a simple perturbative model that illuminates the origins of stochasticity inherent to this system and derive analytic estimates of the Lyapunov time as well as the chaotic diffusion coefficient. We then address the formation of the multi-resonant structure within a protoplanetary disk and show that modest turbulent forcing in addition to dissipative effects is required to reproduce the observed chaotic configuration. Accordingly, this work places important constraints on the typical formation environments of planetary systems and informs the attributes of representative orbital architectures that arise from extended disk-driven evolution.

### On detecting biospheres from thermodynamic disequilibrium in planetary atmospheres

Atmospheric chemical disequilibrium has been proposed as a method for detecting extraterrestrial biospheres from exoplanet observations. Chemical disequilibrium is potentially a generalized biosignature since it makes no assumptions about particular biogenic gases or metabolisms. Here, we present the first rigorous calculations of the thermodynamic chemical disequilibrium in the atmospheres of Solar System planets, in which we quantify the difference in Gibbs free energy of an observed atmosphere compared to that of all the atmospheric gases reacted to equilibrium. The purely gas phase disequilibrium in Earth’s atmosphere, as measured by this available Gibbs free energy, is not unusual by Solar System standards and smaller than that of Mars. However, Earth’s atmosphere is in contact with a surface ocean, which means that gases can react with water, and so a multiphase calculation that includes aqueous species is required. We find that the disequilibrium in Earth’s atmosphere-ocean system (in joules per mole of atmosphere) ranges from ~20 to 2E6 times larger than the disequilibria of other atmospheres in the Solar System depending on the celestial body being compared. Disequilibrium in other Solar System atmospheres is driven by abiotic processes, and we identify the key disequilibria in each atmosphere. Earth’s thermodynamic disequilibrium is biogenic in origin, and the main contribution is the coexistence of N2, O2 and liquid water instead of more stable nitrate. In comparison, the disequilibrium between O2 and methane constitutes a negligible contribution to Earth’s disequilibrium with this metric. Our metric requires minimal assumptions and could potentially be calculated using observations of exoplanet atmospheres. Our Matlab source code and associated databases for these calculations are available as open source software.

### Spectrophotometric analysis of cometary nuclei from in situ observations (PhD thesis)

Topic of this work are comets, small and elusive objects that may hold great secrets about the origin of the Solar System and life on Earth, being among the most primitive objects. The method of investigation addressed in this work is the visible and infrared spectrophotometry by imaging spectrometers, designed for the observation of remote planetary atmospheres and surfaces, capable to acquire hyperspectral data with high spatial and spectral resolution. The context under which this mission moves its steps is described in the first chapter. In the second chapter the performances of the VIRTS instrument, onboard Rosetta spacecraft, are analyzed in detail. In particular the modeling of the signal to noise ratio is the main argument of this chapter. The third chapter shows simulations of possible spectra of the comet’s nucleus, which are useful for both a comparison with real spectra, and for a planning of the observations. Hapke’s radiative transfer model is used to invert acquired data to infer physical properties. The fourth chapter introduces a method for spectral modeling. It includes the information on the instrumental noise, permitting the analysis of the goodness of the models, and an estimation of the error of the retrieved parameters. The fifth chapter presents the spectral analysis of Tempel 1 and Hartley 2 whose data are coming from Deep Impact space mission and its extended investigation. The sixth chapter shows the photometric analysis of Lutetia asteroid, which was encountered by Rosetta during its cruise phase. This work have paved the way to the analysis of the final target of Rosetta: comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. The tools presented are currently used by the VIRTIS Team to produce works on the comet, that are recommended to the reader. Since a complete analysis on the comet is outside the scope of this work, just preliminary results are shown here.

### Stellar wind induced soft X-ray emission from close-in exoplanets

In this paper, we estimate the X-ray emission from close-in exoplanets. We show that the Solar/Stellar Wind Charge Exchange Mechanism (SWCX) which produces soft X-ray emission is very effective for hot Jupiters. In this mechanism, X-ray photons are emitted as a result of the charge exchange between heavy ions in the solar wind and the atmospheric neutral particles. In the Solar System, comets produce X-rays mostly through the SWCX mechanism, but it has also been shown to operate in the heliosphere, in the terrestrial magnetosheath, and on Mars, Venus and Moon. Since the number of emitted photons is proportional to the solar wind mass flux, this mechanism is not very effective for the Solar system giants. Here we present a simple estimate of the X-ray emission intensity that can be produced by close-in extrasolar giant planets due to charge exchange with the heavy ions of the stellar wind. Using the example of HD~209458b, we show that this mechanism alone can be responsible for an X-ray emission of $\approx 10^{22}$~erg~s$^{-1}$, which is $10^6$ times stronger than the emission from the Jovian aurora. We discuss also the possibility to observe the predicted soft X-ray flux of hot Jupiters and show that despite high emission intensities they are unobservable with current facilities.

### Jupiter's Decisive Role in the Inner Solar System's Early Evolution [Replacement]

The statistics of extrasolar planetary systems indicate that the default mode of planet formation generates planets with orbital periods shorter than 100 days, and masses substantially exceeding that of the Earth. When viewed in this context, the Solar System is unusual. Here, we present simulations which show that a popular formation scenario for Jupiter and Saturn, in which Jupiter migrates inward from a > 5 AU to a ~ 1.5 AU before reversing direction, can explain the low overall mass of the Solar System’s terrestrial planets, as well as the absence of planets with a < 0.4 AU. Jupiter’s inward migration entrained s ~ 10-100 km planetesimals into low-order mean-motion resonances, shepherding and exciting their orbits. The resulting collisional cascade generated a planetesimal disk that, evolving under gas drag, would have driven any pre-existing short-period planets into the Sun. In this scenario, the Solar System’s terrestrial planets formed from gas-starved mass-depleted debris that remained after the primary period of dynamical evolution.

### Jupiter's Decisive Role in the Inner Solar System's Early Evolution

The statistics of extrasolar planetary systems indicate that the default mode of planet formation generates planets with orbital periods shorter than 100 days, and masses substantially exceeding that of the Earth. When viewed in this context, the Solar System is unusual. Here, we present simulations which show that a popular formation scenario for Jupiter and Saturn, in which Jupiter migrates inward from a > 5 AU to a ~ 1.5 AU before reversing direction, can explain the low overall mass of the Solar System’s terrestrial planets, as well as the absence of planets with a < 0.4 AU. Jupiter’s inward migration entrained s ~ 10-100 km planetesimals into low-order mean-motion resonances, shepherding and exciting their orbits. The resulting collisional cascade generated a planetesimal disk that, evolving under gas drag, would have driven any pre-existing short-period planets into the Sun. In this scenario, the Solar System’s terrestrial planets formed from gas-starved mass-depleted debris that remained after the primary period of dynamical evolution.

### Photometry's bright future: Detecting Solar System analogues with future space telescopes

Time-series transit photometry from the Kepler space telescope has allowed for the discovery of thousands of exoplanets. We explore the potential of yet improved future missions such as PLATO 2.0 in detecting solar system analogues. We use real-world solar data and end-to-end simulations to explore the stellar and instrumental noise properties. By injecting and retrieving planets, rings and moons of our own solar system, we show that the discovery of Venus- and Earth-analogues transiting G-dwarfs like our Sun is feasible at high S/N after collecting 6yrs of data, but Mars and Mercury will be difficult to detect due to stellar noise. In the best cases, Saturn’s rings and Jupiter’s moons will be detectable even in single transit observations. Through the high number (>1bn) of observed stars by PLATO 2.0, it will become possible to detect thousands of single-transit events by cold gas giants, analogue to our Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Our own solar system aside, we also show, through signal injection and retrieval, that PLATO 2.0-class photometry will allow for the secure detection of exomoons transiting quiet M-dwarfs. This is the first study analyzing in-depth the potential of future missions, and the ultimate limits of photometry, using realistic case examples.

### Chaos in navigation satellite orbits caused by the perturbed motion of the Moon

Numerical simulations carried out over the past decade suggest that the orbits of the Global Navigation Satellite Systems are unstable, resulting in an apparent chaotic growth of the eccentricity. Here we show that the irregular and haphazard character of these orbits reflects a similar irregularity in the orbits of many celestial bodies in our Solar System. We find that secular resonances, involving linear combinations of the frequencies of nodal and apsidal precession and the rate of regression of lunar nodes, occur in profusion so that the phase space is threaded by a devious stochastic web. As in all cases in the Solar System, chaos ensues where resonances overlap. These results may be significant for the analysis of disposal strategies for the four constellations in this precarious region of space.

### Classical Tests of General Relativity: Brane-World Sun from Minimal Geometric Deformation

We consider a solution of the effective four-dimensional brane-world equations, obtained from the General Relativistic Schwarzschild metric via the principle of Minimal Geometric Deformation, and investigate the corresponding signatures stemming from the possible existence of a warped extra dimension. In particular, we derive bounds on an extra-dimensional parameter, closely related with the fundamental gravitational length, from the experimental results of the classical tests of General Relativity in the Solar system.

### Classical Tests of General Relativity: Brane-World Sun from Minimal Geometric Deformation [Cross-Listing]

We consider a solution of the effective four-dimensional brane-world equations, obtained from the General Relativistic Schwarzschild metric via the principle of Minimal Geometric Deformation, and investigate the corresponding signatures stemming from the possible existence of a warped extra dimension. In particular, we derive bounds on an extra-dimensional parameter, closely related with the fundamental gravitational length, from the experimental results of the classical tests of General Relativity in the Solar system.

### Pioneer 10 and 11 Spacecraft Anomalous Acceleration in the light of the Nonsymmetric Kaluza-Klein (Jordan-Thiry) Theory [Cross-Listing]

The Nonsymmetric Kaluza-Klein (Jordan-Thiry) Theory leads to a model of a modified acceleration that can fit an anomalous acceleration experienced by the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft. The future positions of those spacecrafts are predicted using distorted hyperbolic orbit. A mysterious connection between an anomalous acceleration and a Hubble constant is solved in the theory. In the paper we consider an exact solution of a point mass motion in the Solar System under an influence of an anomalous acceleration. We find two types of orbits: periodic and chaotic. Both orbits are bounded. This means there is no possibility to escape from the Solar System. Some possibilities to avoid this conclusion are considered. We resolve also some mysterious coincidence between an anomalous acceleration and the cosmological constant using a paradigm of modern cosmology. Relativistic effects and a cosmological drifting of a gravitational constant are considered.The model of an anomalous acceleration does not cause any contradiction with Solar System observations. We give a full statistical analysis of the model.

### Why are dense planetary rings only found between 8 and 20 AU? [Replacement]

The recent discovery of dense rings around the Centaur Chariklo (and possibly Chiron) reveals that complete dense planetary rings are not only found around Saturn and Uranus, but also around small bodies orbiting in the vicinity of those giant planets. This report examines whether there could be a physical process that would make rings more likely to form or persist in this particular part of the outer Solar System. Specifically, the ring material orbiting Saturn and Uranus appears to be much weaker than the material forming the innermost moons of Jupiter and Neptune. Also, the mean surface temperatures of Saturn’s, Uranus’ and Chariklo’s rings are all close to 70 K. Thus the restricted distribution of dense rings in our Solar System may arise because icy materials are particularly weak around that temperature.

### Why are dense planetary rings only found between 8 AU and 20 AU?

The recent discovery of dense rings around the Centaur Chariklo (and possibly Chiron) reveals that complete dense planetary rings are not only found around Saturn and Uranus, but also around small bodies orbiting in the vicinity of those giant planets. This report examines whether there could be a physical process that would make rings more likely to form or persist in this particular part of the outer Solar System. Specifically, the ring material orbiting Saturn and Uranus appears to be much weaker than the material forming the innermost moons of Jupiter and Neptune. Also, the mean surface temperatures of Saturn’s, Uranus’ and Chariklo’s rings are all close to 70 K. Thus the restricted distribution of dense rings in our Solar System may arise because icy materials are particularly weak around that temperature.

### Volatile Delivery to Planets from Water-rich Planetesimals around Low Mass Stars

Most models of volatile delivery to accreting terrestrial planets assume that the carriers for water are similar in water content to the carbonaceous chondrites in our Solar System. Here we suggest that the water content of primitive bodies in many planetary systems may actually be much higher, as carbonaceous chondrites have lost some of their original water due to heating from short-lived radioisotopes that drove parent body alteration. Using N-body simulations, we explore how planetary accretion would be different if bodies beyond the water line contained a water mass fraction consistent with chemical equilibrium calculations, and more similar to comets, as opposed to the more traditional water-depleted values. We apply this model to consider planet formation around stars of different masses and identify trends in the properties of Habitable Zone planets and planetary system architecture which could be tested by ongoing exoplanet census data collection. Comparison of such data with the model predicted trends will serve to evaluate how well the N-body simulations and the initial conditions used in studies of planetary accretion can be used to understand this stage of planet formation.

### Constraints on ADM tetrad gravity parameter space from S2 star in the center of the Galaxy and from the Solar System

ADM tetrad gravity is an Hamiltonian reformulation of General Relativity which gives new insight to the Dark Matter Problem. We impose constraints on the parameter space of ADM tetrad gravity with a Yukawa-like ansatz for the trace of the extrinsic curvature of the 3D hypersurfaces by fitting the orbit of the S2 star around the Black Hole in the Galactic center and using the perihelia of some of the planets of the Solar System. We find very thight constraints on the \emph{strength} of the coupling, $4.2 \,\times \, 10^{-4} \, \text{AU}\,\lesssim \, \delta \, \lesssim \, 4.6 \, \times \, 10^{-4} \, \text{AU}$, and an upper limit for the (inverse) scale length, $\mu \, \lesssim \, 3.5 \, \times \, 10^{-6} \, \text{AU}^{-1}$.

### Consolidating and Crushing Exoplanets: Did it happen here?

The Kepler mission results indicate that systems of tighty-packed inner planets (STIPs) are present around of order 5% of FGK field stars (whose median age is ~5 Gyr). We propose that STIPs initially surrounded nearly all such stars and those observed are the final survivors of a process in which long-term metastability eventually ceases and the systems proceed to collisional consolidation or destruction, losing roughly equal fractions of systems every decade in time. In this context, we also propose that our Solar System initially contained additional large planets interior to the current orbit of Venus, which survived in a metastable dynamical configuration for 1-10% of the Solar System’s age. Long-term gravitational perturbations caused the system to orbit cross, leading to a cataclysmic event which left Mercury as the sole surviving relic.

### The EChO science case

The discovery of almost 2000 exoplanets has revealed an unexpectedly diverse planet population. Observations to date have shown that our Solar System is certainly not representative of the general population of planets in our Milky Way. The key science questions that urgently need addressing are therefore: What are exoplanets made of? Why are planets as they are? What causes the exceptional diversity observed as compared to the Solar System? EChO (Exoplanet Characterisation Observatory) has been designed as a dedicated survey mission for transit and eclipse spectroscopy capable of observing a large and diverse planet sample within its four-year mission lifetime. EChO can target the atmospheres of super-Earths, Neptune-like, and Jupiter-like planets, in the very hot to temperate zones (planet temperatures of 300K-3000K) of F to M-type host stars. Over the next ten years, several new ground- and space-based transit surveys will come on-line (e.g. NGTS, CHEOPS, TESS, PLATO), which will specifically focus on finding bright, nearby systems. The current rapid rate of discovery would allow the target list to be further optimised in the years prior to EChO’s launch and enable the atmospheric characterisation of hundreds of planets. Placing the satellite at L2 provides a cold and stable thermal environment, as well as a large field of regard to allow efficient time-critical observation of targets randomly distributed over the sky. A 1m class telescope is sufficiently large to achieve the necessary spectro-photometric precision. The spectral coverage (0.5-11 micron, goal 16 micron) and SNR to be achieved by EChO, thanks to its high stability and dedicated design, would enable a very accurate measurement of the atmospheric composition and structure of hundreds of exoplanets.

### Low 60Fe abundance in Semarkona and Sahara 99555

Iron-60 (t1/2=2.62 Myr) is a short-lived nuclide that can help constrain the astrophysical context of solar system formation and date early solar system events. A high abundance of 60Fe (60Fe/56Fe= 4×10-7) was reported by in situ techniques in some chondrules from the LL3.00 Semarkona meteorite, which was taken as evidence that a supernova exploded in the vicinity of the birthplace of the Sun. However, our previous MC-ICPMS measurements of a wide range of meteoritic materials, including chondrules, showed that 60Fe was present in the early solar system at a much lower level (60Fe/56Fe=10-8). The reason for the discrepancy is unknown but only two Semarkona chondrules were measured by MC-ICPMS and these had Fe/Ni ratios below ~2x chondritic. Here, we show that the initial 60Fe/56Fe ratio in Semarkona chondrules with Fe/Ni ratios up to ~24x chondritic is 5.4×10-9. We also establish the initial 60Fe/56Fe ratio at the time of crystallization of the Sahara 99555 angrite, a chronological anchor, to be 1.97×10-9. These results demonstrate that the initial abundance of 60Fe at solar system birth was low, corresponding to an initial 60Fe/56Fe ratio of 1.01×10-8.

### Near-IR imaging of T Cha: evidence for scattered-light disk structures at solar system scales

T Chamaeleontis is a young star surrounded by a transitional disk, and a plausible candidate for ongoing planet formation. Recently, a substellar companion candidate was reported within the disk gap of this star. However, its existence remains controversial, with the counter-hypothesis that light from a high inclination disk may also be consistent with the observed data. The aim of this work is to investigate the origin of the observed closure phase signal to determine if it is best explained by a compact companion. We observed T Cha in the L and K s filters with sparse aperture masking, with 7 datasets covering a period of 3 years. A consistent closure phase signal is recovered in all L and K s datasets. Data were fit with a companion model and an inclined circumstellar disk model based on known disk parameters: both were shown to provide an adequate fit. However, the absence of expected relative motion for an orbiting body over the 3-year time baseline spanned by the observations rules out the companion model. Applying image reconstruction techniques to each dataset reveals a stationary structure consistent with forward scattering from the near edge of an inclined disk.

### The Closest Known Flyby of a Star to the Solar System

Passing stars can perturb the Oort Cloud, triggering comet showers and potentially extinction events on Earth. We combine velocity measurements for the recently discovered, nearby, low-mass binary system WISE J072003.20-084651.2 ("Scholz’s star") to calculate its past trajectory. Integrating the Galactic orbits of this $\sim$0.15 M$_{\odot}$ binary system and the Sun, we find that the binary passed within only 52$^{+23}_{-14}$ kAU (0.25$^{+0.11}_{-0.07}$ parsec) of the Sun 70$^{+15}_{-10}$ kya (1$\sigma$ uncertainties), i.e. within the outer Oort Cloud. This is the closest known encounter of a star to our solar system with a well-constrained distance and velocity. Previous work suggests that flybys within 0.25 pc occur infrequently ($\sim$0.1 Myr$^{-1}$). We show that given the low mass and high velocity of the binary system, the encounter was dynamically weak. Using the best available astrometry, our simulations suggest that the probability that the star penetrated the outer Oort Cloud is $\sim$98%, but the probability of penetrating the dynamically active inner Oort Cloud ($<$20 kAU) is $\sim$10$^{-4}$. While the flyby of this system likely caused negligible impact on the flux of long-period comets, the recent discovery of this binary highlights that dynamically important Oort Cloud perturbers may be lurking among nearby stars.

### Earth and Terrestrial Planet Formation

The growth and composition of Earth is a direct consequence of planet formation throughout the Solar System. We discuss the known history of the Solar System, the proposed stages of growth and how the early stages of planet formation may be dominated by pebble growth processes. Pebbles are small bodies whose strong interactions with the nebula gas lead to remarkable new accretion mechanisms for the formation of planetesimals and the growth of planetary embryos. Many of the popular models for the later stages of planet formation are presented. The classical models with the giant planets on fixed orbits are not consistent with the known history of the Solar System, fail to create a high Earth/Mars mass ratio, and, in many cases, are also internally inconsistent. The successful Grand Tack model creates a small Mars, a wet Earth, a realistic asteroid belt and the mass-orbit structure of the terrestrial planets. In the Grand Tack scenario, growth curves for Earth most closely match a Weibull model. The feeding zones, which determine the compositions of Earth and Venus follow a particular pattern determined by Jupiter, while the feeding zones of Mars and Theia, the last giant impactor on Earth, appear to randomly sample the terrestrial disk. The late accreted mass samples the disk nearly evenly.

### The dynamical structure of HR 8799's inner debris disk

The HR 8799 system, with its four giant planets and two debris belts, has an architecture closely mirroring that of our Solar system where the inner, warm asteroid belt and outer, cool Edgeworth-Kuiper belt bracket the giant planets. As such, it is a valuable laboratory for examining exoplanetary dynamics and debris disk-exoplanet interactions. Whilst the outer debris belt of HR 8799 has been well resolved by previous observations, the spatial extent of the inner disk remains unknown. This leaves a significant question mark over both the location of the planetesimals responsible for producing the belt’s visible dust and the physical properties of those grains. We have performed the most extensive simulations to date of the inner, unresolved debris belt around HR 8799, using UNSW Australia’s Katana supercomputing facility to follow the dynamical evolution of a model inner disk comprising 300,298 particles for a period of 60 million years. These simulations have enabled the characterisation of the extent and structure of the inner disk in detail, and will in future allow us to provide a first estimate of the small-body impact rate and water delivery prospects for possible (as-yet undetected) terrestrial planet(s) in the inner system.

### Identification and Dynamical Properties of Asteroid Families

Asteroids formed in a dynamically quiescent disk but their orbits became gravitationally stirred enough by Jupiter to lead to high-speed collisions. As a result, many dozen large asteroids have been disrupted by impacts over the age of the Solar System, producing groups of fragments known as asteroid families. Here we explain how the asteroid families are identified, review their current inventory, and discuss how they can be used to get insights into long-term dynamics of main belt asteroids. Electronic tables of the membership for 122 notable families are reported on the Planetary Data System node.

### Contribution to the study of the resonant rotation in the Solar System

This HDR-thesis is devoted to the study of the rotation of the natural satellites of the giant planets and of Mercury. These bodies have a resonant rotation. Most of the natural satellites rotate synchronously, showing the same hemisphere to their parent planet (1:1 spin-orbit resonance). The case of Mercury is unique since its spin rate is exactly 1.5 its mean motion (3:2 spin-orbit resonance). These two configurations are dynamical equilibria, reached after damping of the initial rotation of the relevant bodies. Thus, the rotation quantities are a signature of the interior, in particular of a putative global ocean. This manuscript divides into 3 parts. The first part is devoted to the synchronous resonance. It presents different models of rotation from a fully rigid body to a one with a global subsurfacic ocean. We always consider all the degrees of freedom simultaneously, using analytical and numerical resolutions. These models are applied on Titan, Callisto, Janus, Epimetheus, Mimas, Hyperion, and Io. The second part presents the resonant rotation of Mercury, target of the two space missions MESSENGER and BepiColombo. We reveal in particular how it got trapped into its 3:2 resonance. The final part presents an algorithm I have elaborated to tackle the rotational problems.

### Micron-scale D/H heterogeneity in chondrite matrices: a signature of the pristine solar system water?

Organic matter and hydrous silicates are intimately mixed in the matrix of chondrites and in-situ determination of their individual D/H ratios is therefore challenging. Nevertheless, the D/H ratio of each pure component in this mixture should yield a comprehensible signature of the origin and evolution of water and organic matter in our solar system. We measured hydrogen isotope ratios of organic and hydrous silicates in the matrices of two carbonaceous chondrites (Orgueil CI1 and Renazzo CR2) and one unequilibrated ordinary chondrite (Semarkona, LL3.0). A novel protocol was adopted, involving NanoSIMS imaging of H isotopes of monoatomatic ($H^-$) and molecular ($OH^-$) secondary ions collected at the same location. This allowed the most enriched component with respect to D to be identified in the mixture. Using this protocol, we found that in carbonaceous chondrites the isotopically homogeneous hydrous silicates are mixed with D-rich organic matter. The opposite was observed in Semarkona. Hydrous silicates in Semarkona display highly heterogeneous D/H ratios, ranging from $150$ to $1800$ ${\times}$ $10^{-6}$ (${\delta}D_{SMOW} = -40$ to $10,600$ permil). Organic matter in Semarkona does not show such large isotopic variations. This suggests limited isotopic exchange between the two phases during aqueous alteration. Our study greatly expands the range of water isotopic values measured so far in solar system objects. This D-rich water reservoir was sampled by the LL ordinary chondrite parent body and an estimate (up to 9 %) of its relative contribution to the D/H ratio of water in Oort cloud family comets is proposed.

### The non-convex shape of (234) Barbara, the first Barbarian

Asteroid (234) Barbara is the prototype of a category of asteroids that has been shown to be extremely rich in refractory inclusions, the oldest material ever found in the Solar System. It exhibits several peculiar features, most notably its polarimetric behavior. In recent years other objects sharing the same property (collectively known as "Barbarians") have been discovered. Interferometric observations in the mid-infrared with the ESO VLTI suggested that (234) Barbara might have a bi-lobated shape or even a large companion satellite. We use a large set of 57 optical lightcurves acquired between 1979 and 2014, together with the timings of two stellar occultations in 2009, to determine the rotation period, spin-vector coordinates, and 3-D shape of (234) Barbara, using two different shape reconstruction algorithms. By using the lightcurves combined to the results obtained from stellar occultations, we are able to show that the shape of (234) Barbara exhibits large concave areas. Possible links of the shape to the polarimetric properties and the object evolution are discussed. We also show that VLTI data can be modeled without the presence of a satellite.

### Structure, composition, and location of organic matter in the enstatite chondrite Sahara 97096 (EH3)

The insoluble organic matter (IOM) of an unequilibrated enstatite chondrite Sahara (SAH) 97096 has been investigated using a battery of analytical techniques. As the enstatite chondrites are thought to have formed in a reduced environment at higher temperatures than carbonaceous chondrites, they constitute an interesting comparative material to test the heterogeneities of the IOM in the solar system and to constrain the processes that could affect IOM during solar system evolution. The SAH 97096 IOM is found in situ: as submicrometer grains in the network of fine-grained matrix occurring mostly around chondrules and as inclusions in metallic nodules, where the carbonaceous matter appears to be more graphitized. IOM in these two settings has very similar $\delta^{15}N$ and $\delta^{13}C$; this supports the idea that graphitized inclusions in metal could be formed by metal catalytic graphitization of matrix IOM. A detailed comparison between the IOM extracted from a fresh part and a terrestrially weathered part of SAH 97096 shows the similarity between both IOM samples in spite of the high degree of mineral alteration in the latter. The isolated IOM exhibits a heterogeneous polyaromatic macromolecular structure, sometimes highly graphitized, without any detectable free radicals and deuterium-heterogeneity and having mean H- and N-isotopic compositions in the range of values observed for carbonaceous chondrites. It contains some submicrometer-sized areas highly enriched in $^{15}N$ ($\delta^{15}N$ up to 1600 permil). These observations reinforce the idea that the IOM found in carbonaceous chondrites is a common component widespread in the solar system. Most of the features of SAH 97096 IOM could be explained by the thermal modification of this main component.

### KOI-3158: The oldest known system of terrestrial-size planets

The first discoveries of exoplanets around Sun-like stars have fueled efforts to find ever smaller worlds evocative of Earth and other terrestrial planets in the Solar System. While gas-giant planets appear to form preferentially around metal-rich stars, small planets (with radii less than four Earth radii) can form under a wide range of metallicities. This implies that small, including Earth-size, planets may have readily formed at earlier epochs in the Universe’s history when metals were far less abundant. We report Kepler spacecraft observations of KOI-3158, a metal-poor Sun-like star from the old population of the Galactic thick disk, which hosts five planets with sizes between Mercury and Venus. We used asteroseismology to directly measure a precise age of 11.2+/-1.0 Gyr for the host star, indicating that KOI-3158 formed when the Universe was less than 20% of its current age and making it the oldest known system of terrestrial-size planets. We thus show that Earth-size planets have formed throughout most of the Universe’s 13.8-billion-year history, providing scope for the existence of ancient life in the Galaxy.

### Gas giant planets as dynamical barriers to inward-migrating super-Earths

Planets of 1-4 times Earth’s size on orbits shorter than 100 days exist around 30-50% of all Sun-like stars. In fact, the Solar System is particularly outstanding in its lack of "hot super-Earths" (or "mini-Neptunes"). These planets — or their building blocks — may have formed on wider orbits and migrated inward due to interactions with the gaseous protoplanetary disk. Here, we use a suite of dynamical simulations to show that gas giant planets act as barriers to the inward migration of super-Earths initially placed on more distant orbits. Jupiter’s early formation may have prevented Uranus and Neptune (and perhaps Saturn’s core) from becoming hot super-Earths. Our model predicts that the populations of hot super-Earth systems and Jupiter-like planets should be anti-correlated: gas giants (especially if they form early) should be rare in systems with many hot super-Earths. Testing this prediction will constitute a crucial assessment of the validity of the migration hypothesis for the origin of close-in super-Earths.

### Exoplanetary Geophysics -- An Emerging Discipline

Thousands of extrasolar planets have been discovered, and it is clear that the galactic planetary census draws on a diversity greatly exceeding that exhibited by the solar system’s planets. We review significant landmarks in the chronology of extrasolar planet detection, and we give an overview of the varied observational techniques that are brought to bear. We then discuss the properties of the currently known distribution, using the mass-period diagram as a guide to delineating hot Jupiters, eccentric giant planets, and a third, highly populous, category that we term "ungiants", planets having masses less than 30 Earth masses and orbital periods less than 100 days. We then move to a discussion of the bulk compositions of the extrasolar planets. We discuss the long-standing problem of radius anomalies among giant planets, as well as issues posed by the unexpectedly large range in sizes observed for planets with masses somewhat greater than Earth’s. We discuss the use of transit observations to probe the atmospheres of extrasolar planets; various measurements taken during primary transit, secondary eclipse, and through the full orbital period, can give clues to the atmospheric compositions, structures, and meteorologies. The extrasolar planet catalog, along with the details of our solar system and observations of star-forming regions and protoplanetary disks, provide a backdrop for a discussion of planet formation in which we review the elements of the favored pictures for how the terrestrial and giant planets were assembled. We conclude by listing several research questions that are relevant to the next ten years and beyond.

### Grain-scale thermoelastic stresses and spatiotemporal temperature gradients on airless bodies, implications for rock breakdown

Thermomechanical processes such as fatigue and shock have been suggested to cause and contribute to rock breakdown on Earth, and on other planetary bodies, particularly airless bodies in the inner solar system. In this study, we modeled grain-scale stresses induced by diurnal temperature variations on simple microstructures made of pyroxene and plagioclase on various solar system bodies. We found that a heterogeneous microstructure on the Moon experiences peak tensile stresses on the order of 100 MPa. The stresses induced are controlled by the coefficient of thermal expansion and Young’s modulus of the mineral constituents, and the average stress within the microstructure is determined by relative volume of each mineral. Amplification of stresses occurs at surface-parallel boundaries between adjacent mineral grains and at the tips of pore spaces. We also found that microscopic spatial and temporal surface temperature gradients do not correlate with high stresses, making them inappropriate proxies for investigating microcrack propagation. Although these results provide very strong evidence for the significance of thermomechanical processes on airless bodies, more work is needed to quantify crack propagation and rock breakdown rates.