# Posts Tagged Monte Carlo

## Recent Postings from Monte Carlo

### Properties of Long Gamma Ray Burst Progenitors in Cosmological Simulations

We study the nature of long gamma ray burst (LGRB) progenitors using cosmological simulations of structure formation and galactic evolution. LGRBs are potentially excellent tracers of stellar evolution in the early universe. We developed a Monte Carlo numerical code which generates LGRBs coupled to cosmological simulations. The simulations allows us to follow the ormation of galaxies self-consistently. We model the detectability of LGRBs and their host galaxies in order to compare results with observational data obtained by high-energy satellites. Our code also includes stochastic effects in the observed rate of LGRBs.

### The density of states approach to dense quantum systems [Cross-Listing]

We develop a first-principle generalised density of state method for studying numerically quantum field theories with a complex action. As a proof of concept, we show that with our approach we can solve numerically the strong sign problem of the $Z_3$ spin model at finite density. Our results are confirmed by standard simulations of the theory dual to the considered model, which is free from a sign problem. Our method opens new perspectives on ab initio simulations of cold dense quantum systems, and in particular of Yang-Mills theories with matter at finite densities, for which Monte Carlo based importance sampling are unable to produce sufficiently accurate results.

### The density of states approach to dense quantum systems [Cross-Listing]

We develop a first-principle generalised density of state method for studying numerically quantum field theories with a complex action. As a proof of concept, we show that with our approach we can solve numerically the strong sign problem of the $Z_3$ spin model at finite density. Our results are confirmed by standard simulations of the theory dual to the considered model, which is free from a sign problem. Our method opens new perspectives on ab initio simulations of cold dense quantum systems, and in particular of Yang-Mills theories with matter at finite densities, for which Monte Carlo based importance sampling are unable to produce sufficiently accurate results.

### Small-$x$ dynamics in forward-central dijet decorrelations at the LHC [Replacement]

We provide a description, within the High Energy Factorization formalism, of central-forward dijet decorrelation data measured by the CMS experiment and the predictions for nuclear modification ratio~$R_{pA}$ in p+Pb collisions. In our study, we use the unintegrated gluon density derived from the BFKL and BK equations supplemented with subleading corrections and a hard scale dependence. The latter is introduced at the final step of the calculation by reweighting the Monte Carlo generated events using suitable Sudakov form factors, without changing the total cross section. We achieve a good description of data in the whole region of the azimuthal angle.

### Monte Carlo Radiation Hydrodynamics with Implicit Methods

We explore the application of Monte Carlo transport methods to solving coupled radiation-hydrodynamics problems. We use a time-dependent, frequency-dependent, 3-dimensional radiation transport code, that is special relativistic and includes some detailed microphysical interactions such as resonant line scattering. We couple the transport code to two different 1-dimensional (non-relativistic) hydrodynamics solvers: a spherical Lagrangian scheme and a Eulerian Godunov solver. The gas-radiation energy coupling is treated implicitly, allowing us to take hydrodyanimcal time-steps that are much longer than the radiative cooling time. We validate the code and assess its performance using a suite of radiation hydrodynamical test problems, including ones in the radiation energy dominated regime. We also develop techniques that reduce the noise of the Monte Carlo estimated radiation force by using the spatial divergence of the radiation pressure tensor. The results suggest that Monte Carlo techniques hold promise for simulating the multi-dimensional radiation hydrodynamics of astrophysical systems.

### (MC)**3 -- a Multi-Channel Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm for phase-space sampling [Replacement]

A new Monte Carlo algorithm for phase-space sampling, named (MC)**3, is presented. It is based on Markov Chain Monte Carlo techniques but at the same time incorporates prior knowledge about the target distribution in the form of suitable phase-space mappings from a corresponding Multi-Channel importance sampling Monte Carlo. The combined approach inherits the benefits of both techniques while typical drawbacks of either solution get ameliorated.

### (MC)**3 -- a Multi-Channel Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm for phase-space sampling [Replacement]

A new Monte Carlo algorithm for phase-space sampling, named (MC)**3, is presented. It is based on Markov Chain Monte Carlo techniques but at the same time incorporates prior knowledge about the target distribution in the form of suitable phase-space mappings from a corresponding Multi-Channel importance sampling Monte Carlo. The combined approach inherits the benefits of both techniques while typical drawbacks of either solution get ameliorated.

### (MC)**3 -- a Multi-Channel Markov Chain Monte Carlo algorithm for phase-space sampling

A new Monte Carlo algorithm for phase-space integration, named (MC)**3, is presented. It is based on Markov Chain Monte Carlo techniques but at the same time incorporates prior knowledge about the target distribution in the form of suitable phase-space mappings from a corresponding Multi-Channel importance sampling Monte Carlo. The combined approach inherits the benefits of both techniques while typical drawbacks of either solution get ameliorated.

### Heavy dense QCD and nuclear matter from an effective lattice theory [Cross-Listing]

A three-dimensional effective lattice theory of Polyakov loops is derived from QCD by expansions in the fundamental character of the gauge action, u, and the hopping parameter, \kappa, whose action is correct to \kappa^n u^m with n+m=4. At finite baryon density, the effective theory has a sign problem which meets all criteria to be simulated by complex Langevin as well as by Monte Carlo on small volumes. The theory is valid for the thermodynamics of heavy quarks, where its predictions agree with simulations of full QCD at zero and imaginary chemical potential. In its region of convergence, it is moreover amenable to perturbative calculations in the small effective couplings. In this work we study the challenging cold and dense regime. We find unambiguous evidence for the nuclear liquid gas transition once the baryon chemical potential approaches the baryon mass, and calculate the nuclear equation of state. In particular, we find a negative binding energy per nucleon causing the condensation, whose absolute value decreases exponentially as mesons get heavier. For decreasing meson mass, we observe a first order liquid gas transition with an endpoint at some finite temperature, as well as gap between the onset of isospin and baryon condensation.

### Validation of Compton Scattering Monte Carlo Simulation Models [Cross-Listing]

Several models for the Monte Carlo simulation of Compton scattering on electrons are quantitatively evaluated with respect to a large collection of experimental data retrieved from the literature. Some of these models are currently implemented in general purpose Monte Carlo systems; some have been implemented and evaluated for possible use in Monte Carlo particle transport for the first time in this study. Here we present first and preliminary results concerning total and differential Compton scattering cross sections.

### The Influence of Galactic Cosmic Rays on Ion-Neutral Hydrocarbon Chemistry in the Upper Atmospheres of Free-Floating Exoplanets

Cosmic rays may be linked to the formation of volatiles necessary for prebiotic chemistry. We explore the effect of cosmic rays in a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, as a proof-of-concept that ion-neutral chemistry may be important for modelling hydrogen-dominated atmospheres. In order to accomplish this, we utilize Monte Carlo cosmic ray transport models with particle energies of $10^6$ eV $< E < 10^{12}$ eV in order to investigate the cosmic ray enhancement of free electrons in substellar atmospheres. Ion-neutral chemistry is then applied to a Drift-Phoenix model of a free-floating giant gas planet. Our results suggest that the activation of ion-neutral chemistry in the upper atmosphere significantly enhances formation rates for various species, and we find that C$_2$H$_2$, C$_2$H$_4$, NH$_3$, C$_6$H$_6$ and possibly C$_{10}$H are enhanced in the upper atmospheres because of cosmic rays. Our results suggest a potential connection between cosmic ray chemistry and the hazes observed in the upper atmospheres of various extrasolar planets. Chemi-ionization reactions are briefly discussed, as they may enhance the degree of ionization in the cloud layer.

### First determination of $f_+(0) |V_{us}|$ from a combined analysis of $\tau\to K\pi \nu_\tau$ decay and $\pi K$ scattering with constraints from $K_{\ell3}$ decays [Replacement]

We perform a combined analysis of $\tau\to K\pi \nu_\tau$ decay and $\pi K$ scattering with constraints from $K_{\ell3}$ data using a $N/D$ approach that fulfills requirements from unitarity and analyticity. We obtain a good fit of the $I=1/2$ $\pi K$ amplitude in the $P$ wave using the LASS data above the elastic region while in this region data are generated via Monte Carlo using the FOCUS results based on $D_{\ell 4}$ decay. The spectrum and branching ratio of $\tau\to K\pi \nu_\tau$ constrained by $K_{\ell3}$ decays are also well reproduced leading to $f_+(0) |V_{us}|= 0.2163 \pm 0.0014$. Furthermore, we obtain the slope of the vector form factor $\lambda_+=(25.56 \pm 0.40) \times 10^{-3}$ while the value of the scalar form factor at the Callan-Treiman point is $\ln C=0.2062 \pm 0.0089$. Given the experimental precision our results are compatible with the Standard model.

### Short-Term Variability of X-rays from Accreting Neutron Star Vela X-1: II. Monte-Carlo Modeling

We develop a Monte Carlo Comptonization model for the X-ray spectrum of accretion-powered pulsars. Simple, spherical, thermal Comptonization models give harder spectra for higher optical depth, while the observational data from Vela X-1 show that the spectra are harder at higher luminosity. This suggests a physical interpretation where the optical depth of the accreting plasma increases with mass accretion rate. We develop a detailed Monte-Carlo model of the accretion flow, including the effects of the strong magnetic field ($\sim 10^{12}$ G) both in geometrically constraining the flow into an accretion column, and in reducing the cross section. We treat bulk-motion Comptonization of the infalling material as well as thermal Comptonization. These model spectra can match the observed broad-band {\it Suzaku} data from Vela X-1 over a wide range of mass accretion rates. The model can also explain the so-called "low state", in which the uminosity decreases by an order of magnitude. Here, thermal Comptonization should be negligible, so the spectrum instead is dominated by bulk-motion Comptonization.

### Hierarchical octree and k-d tree grids for 3D radiative transfer simulations

A crucial ingredient for numerically solving the 3D radiative transfer problem is the choice of the grid that discretizes the transfer medium. Many modern radiative transfer codes, whether using Monte Carlo or ray tracing techniques, are equipped with hierarchical octree-based grids to accommodate a wide dynamic range in densities. We critically investigate two different aspects of octree grids in the framework of Monte Carlo dust radiative transfer. Inspired by their common use in computer graphics applications, we test hierarchical k-d tree grids as an alternative for octree grids. On the other hand, we investigate which node subdivision-stopping criteria are optimal for constructing of hierarchical grids. We implemented a k-d tree grid in the 3D radiative transfer code SKIRT and compared it with the previously implemented octree grid. We also considered three different node subdivision-stopping criteria (based on mass, optical depth, and density gradient thresholds). Based on a small suite of test models, we compared the efficiency and accuracy of the different grids, according to various quality metrics. For a given set of requirements, the k-d tree grids only require half the number of cells of the corresponding octree. Moreover, for the same number of grid cells, the k-d tree is characterized by higher discretization accuracy. Concerning the subdivision stopping criteria, we find that an optical depth criterion is not a useful alternative to the more standard mass threshold, since the resulting grids show a poor accuracy. Both criteria can be combined; however, in the optimal combination, for which we provide a simple approximate recipe, this can lead to a 20% reduction in the number of cells needed to reach a certain grid quality. An additional density gradient threshold criterion can be added that solves the problem of poorly resolving sharp edges and… (abridged).

### Comparative Analysis of Numerical Methods for Parameter Determination

We made a comparative analysis of numerical methods for multidimensional optimization. The main parameter is a number of computations of the test function to reach necessary accuracy, as it is computationally "slow". For complex functions, analytic differentiation by many parameters can cause problems associated with a significant complication of the program and thus slowing its operation. For comparison, we used the methods: "brute force" (or minimization on a regular grid), Monte Carlo, steepest descent, conjugate gradients, Brent’s method (golden section search), parabolic interpolation etc. The Monte-Carlo method was applied to the eclipsing binary system AM Leo.

### Calculations of the Propagated LIS Electron Spectrum Which Describe the Cosmic Ray Electron Spectrum below ~100 MeV Measured Beyond 122 AU at Voyager 1 and its Relationship to the PAMELA Electron Spectrum above 200 MeV [Cross-Listing]

The new Voyager measurements of cosmic ray electrons between 6-60 MeV beyond 122 AU are very sensitive indicators of cosmic ray propagation and acceleration in the galaxy at a very low modulation level. Using a Monte Carlo diffusion model with a source spectrum with a single spectral index of -2.2 at all energies we are able to fit this observed Voyager spectrum and the contemporary PAMELA electron spectrum over an energy range from 6 MeV to ~200 GeV. This spectrum has a break in it but this break is due to propagation effects, not changes in the primary spectrum. This break is gradual, starting at > 2 GeV where the spectrum is ~E^-3.2 and continuing down to ~100 MeV or below where the spectrum becomes ~E^-1.5. At the higher energies the loss terms due to synchrotron radiation and inverse Compton effects which are ~E^2.0 steepen the exponent of the source spectrum by 1.0. At lower energies, these terms become unimportant and the loss is governed by diffusion and escape from the galaxy. A diffusion term which is proportional to beta^-1 below ~0.32 GV (which also fit the H and He spectra measured at Voyager) and has a value = 3×1028 cm^2 x s^-1 at 1 GV and a boundary at +/-1 Kpc will fit the Voyager or other similar spectra at low energies.

### The First Circumstellar Disk Imaged in Silhouette with Adaptive Optics: MagAO Imaging of Orion 218-354

We present high resolution adaptive optics (AO) corrected images of the silhouette disk Orion 218-354 taken with Magellan AO (MagAO) and its visible light camera, VisAO, in simultaneous differential imaging (SDI) mode at H-alpha. This is the first image of a circumstellar disk seen in silhouette with adaptive optics and is among the first visible light adaptive optics results in the literature. We derive the disk extent, geometry, intensity and extinction profiles and find, in contrast with previous work, that the disk is likely optically-thin at H-alpha. Our data provide an estimate of the column density in primitive, ISM-like grains as a function of radius in the disk. We estimate that only ~10% of the total sub-mm derived disk mass lies in primitive, unprocessed grains. We use our data, Monte Carlo radiative transfer modeling and previous results from the literature to make the first self-consistent multiwavelength model of Orion 218-354. We find that we are able to reproduce the 1-1000micron SED with a ~2-540AU disk of the size, geometry, small vs. large grain proportion and radial mass profile indicated by our data. This inner radius is a factor of ~15 larger than the sublimation radius of the disk, suggesting that it is likely cleared in the very interior.

### The First Circumstellar Disk Imaged in Silhouette with Adaptive Optics: MagAO Imaging of Orion 218-354 [Replacement]

We present high resolution adaptive optics (AO) corrected images of the silhouette disk Orion 218-354 taken with Magellan AO (MagAO) and its visible light camera, VisAO, in simultaneous differential imaging (SDI) mode at H-alpha. This is the first image of a circumstellar disk seen in silhouette with adaptive optics and is among the first visible light adaptive optics results in the literature. We derive the disk extent, geometry, intensity and extinction profiles and find, in contrast with previous work, that the disk is likely optically-thin at H-alpha. Our data provide an estimate of the column density in primitive, ISM-like grains as a function of radius in the disk. We estimate that only ~10% of the total sub-mm derived disk mass lies in primitive, unprocessed grains. We use our data, Monte Carlo radiative transfer modeling and previous results from the literature to make the first self-consistent multiwavelength model of Orion 218-354. We find that we are able to reproduce the 1-1000micron SED with a ~2-540AU disk of the size, geometry, small vs. large grain proportion and radial mass profile indicated by our data. This inner radius is a factor of ~15 larger than the sublimation radius of the disk, suggesting that it is likely cleared in the very interior.

### Three-dimensional pure deflagration models with nucleosynthesis and synthetic observables for Type Ia supernovae

We investigate whether pure deflagration models of Chandrasekhar-mass carbon-oxygen white dwarf stars can account for one or more sub-class of the observed population of Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) explosions. We compute a set of three-dimensional full-star hydrodynamic explosion models, in which the deflagration strength is parametrized using the multi-spot ignition approach. For each model, we calculate detailed nucleosynthesis yields in a post-processing step with a 384 nuclide nuclear network. We also compute synthetic observables with our three-dimensional Monte-Carlo radiative transfer code for comparison with observations. For weak and intermediate deflagration strengths (energy release E_nuc <~ 1.1 x 10^51 erg), we find that the explosion leaves behind a bound remnant enriched with 3 to 10 per cent (by mass) of deflagration ashes. However, we do not obtain the large kick velocities recently reported in the literature. We find that weak deflagrations with E_nuc ~ 0.5 x 10^51 erg fit well both the light curves and spectra of 2002cx-like SNe Ia, and models with even lower explosion energies could explain some of the fainter members of this sub-class. By comparing our synthetic observables with the properties of SNe Ia, we can exclude the brightest, most vigorously ignited models as candidates for any observed class of SN Ia: their B – V colours deviate significantly from both normal and 2002cx-like SNe Ia and they are too bright to be candidates for other sub-classes.

### Near-parabolic comets observed in 2006-2010. The individualized approach to 1/a-determination and the new distribution of original and future orbits

Dynamics of a complete sample of 22 small perihelion distance near-parabolic comets discovered in the years 2006 – 2010 is studied. First, osculating orbits are obtained after a careful positional data inspection and processing, including where appropriate, the method of data partitioning for determination of pre- and post-perihelion orbit for tracking then its dynamical evolution. The nongravitational acceleration in the motion is detected for 50 per cent of investigated comets, in a few cases for the first time. Different sets of nongravitational parameters are determined from pre- and post-perihelion data for some of them. The influence of the positional data structure on the possibility of the detection of nongravitational effects and the overall precision of orbit determination is widely discussed. Secondly, both original and future orbits were derived by means of numerical integration of swarms of virtual comets obtained using a Monte Carlo cloning method. This method allows to follow the uncertainties of orbital elements at each step of dynamical evolution. The complete statistics of original and future orbits that includes significantly different uncertainties of 1/a-values is presented, also in the light of our results obtained earlier. Basing on 108 comets examined by us so far, we conclude that only one of them, C/2007 W1 Boattini, seems to be a serious candidate for an interstellar comet. We also found that 53 per cent of 108 near-parabolic comets escaping in the future from the Solar system, and the number of comets leaving the Solar system as so called Oort spike comets is 14 per cent. A new method for cometary orbit quality assessment is also proposed that leads to a better diversification of orbit quality classes for contemporary comets.

### A Flux Scale for Southern Hemisphere 21cm EoR Experiments

We present a catalog of spectral measurements covering a 100-200 MHz band for 32 sources, derived from observations with a 64-antenna deployment of the Donald C. Backer Precision Array for Probing the Epoch of Reionization (PAPER) in South Africa. For transit telescopes such as PAPER, calibration of the primary beam is a difficult endeavor, and errors in this calibration are a major source of error in the determination of source spectra. In order to decrease reliance on accurate beam calibration, we focus on calibrating sources in a narrow declination range from -46d to -40d. Since sources at similar declinations follow nearly identical paths through the primary beam, this restriction greatly reduces errors associated with beam calibration, yielding a dramatic improvement in the accuracy of derived source spectra. Extrapolating from higher frequency catalogs, we derive the flux scale using a Monte-Carlo fit across multiple sources that includes uncertainty from both catalog and measurement errors. Fitting spectral models to catalog data and these new PAPER measurements, we derive new flux models for Pictor A and 31 other sources at nearby declinations. 90% of these confirm and refine a power-law model for flux density. Of note is the new Pictor A flux model, which is accurate to 1.4% and shows, in contrast to previous models, that between 100 MHz and 2 GHz, the spectrum of Pictor A is consistent with a single power law given by a flux at 150 MHz of 382+/-5.4 Jy, and a spectral index of -0.76+/-0.01. This accuracy represents an order of magnitude improvement over previous measurements in this band, and is limited by the uncertainty in the catalog measurements used to estimate the absolute flux scale. The simplicity and improved accuracy of Pictor A’s spectrum make it an excellent calibrator for experiments seeking to measure 21cm emission from the Epoch of Reionization.

### Effects of Compton Cooling on outflows in a Two Component Accretion Flow around a Black Hole: Results of a Coupled Monte Carlo-TVD Simulation

The effect of cooling on the outflow rate from an accretion disk around a black hole is investigated using a coupled Monte Carlo Total Variation Diminishing code. A correlation between the spectral states and the outflow rates is found as a consequence.

### Experimental Limits on Primordial Black Hole Dark Matter from the First Two Years of Kepler Data

We present the analysis on our new limits of the dark matter (DM) halo consisting of primordial black holes (PBHs) or massive compact halo objects (MACHOs). We present a search of the first two years of publicly available Kepler mission data for potential signatures of gravitational microlensing caused by these objects, as well as an extensive analysis of the astrophysical sources of background error. These include variable stars, flare events, and comets or asteroids which are moving through the Kepler field. We discuss the potential of detecting comets using the Kepler lightcurves, presenting measurements of two known comets and one unidentified object, most likely an asteroid or comet. After removing the background events with statistical cuts, we find no microlensing candidates. We therefore present our Monte Carlo efficiency calculation in order to constrain the PBH DM with masses in the range of 2 x 10^-9 solar masses to 10^-7 solar masses. We find that PBHs in this mass range cannot make up the entirety of the DM, thus closing a full order of magnitude in the allowed mass range for PBH DM.

### Progress in Monte Carlo design and optimization of the Cherenkov Telescope Array

The Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) will be an instrument covering a wide energy range in very-high-energy (VHE) gamma rays. CTA will include several types of telescopes, in order to optimize the performance over the whole energy range. Both large-scale Monte Carlo (MC) simulations of CTA super-sets (including many different possible CTA layouts as sub-sets) and smaller-scale simulations dedicated to individual aspects were carried out and are on-going. We summarize results of the prior round of large-scale simulations, show where the design has now evolved beyond the conservative assumptions of the prior round and present first results from the on-going new round of MC simulations.

### Far-Ultraviolet Observations of the Spica Nebula and the Interaction Zone

We report the analysis results of far ultraviolet (FUV) observations, made for a broad region around $\alpha$ Vir (Spica) including the interaction zone of Loop I and the Local Bubble. The whole region was optically thin and a general correlation was seen between the FUV continuum intensity and the dust extinction, except in the neighborhood of the bright central star, indicating the dust scattering nature of the FUV continuum. We performed Monte-Carlo radiative transfer simulations to obtain the optical parameters related to the dust scattering as well as the geometrical structure of the region. The albedo and asymmetry factor were found to be 0.38$\pm$0.06 and 0.46$\pm$0.06, respectively, in good agreement with the Milky Way dust grain models. The distance to and the thickness of the interaction zone were estimated to be 70$^{+4}_{-8}$ pc and 40$^{+8}_{-10}$ pc, respectively. The diffuse FUV continuum in the northern region above Spica was mostly the result of scattering of the starlight from Spica, while that in the southern region was mainly due to the background stars. The \ion{C}{4} $\lambda\lambda$1548, 1551 emission was found throughout the whole region, in contrast to the \ion{Si}{2}* $\lambda$1532 emission which was bright only within the \ion{H}{2} region. This indicates that the \ion{C}{4} line arises mostly at the shell boundaries of the bubbles, with a larger portion likely from the Loop I than from the Local Bubble side, whereas the \ion{Si}{2}* line is from the photoionized Spica nebula.

### Far-Ultraviolet Observations of the Spica Nebula and the Interaction Zone [Replacement]

We report the analysis results of far ultraviolet (FUV) observations, made for a broad region around $\alpha$ Vir (Spica) including the interaction zone of Loop I and the Local Bubble. The whole region was optically thin and a general correlation was seen between the FUV continuum intensity and the dust extinction, except in the neighborhood of the bright central star, indicating the dust scattering nature of the FUV continuum. We performed Monte-Carlo radiative transfer simulations to obtain the optical parameters related to the dust scattering as well as the geometrical structure of the region. The albedo and asymmetry factor were found to be 0.38$\pm$0.06 and 0.46$\pm$0.06, respectively, in good agreement with the Milky Way dust grain models. The distance to and the thickness of the interaction zone were estimated to be 70$^{+4}_{-8}$ pc and 40$^{+8}_{-10}$ pc, respectively. The diffuse FUV continuum in the northern region above Spica was mostly the result of scattering of the starlight from Spica, while that in the southern region was mainly due to the background stars. The \ion{C}{4} $\lambda\lambda$1548, 1551 emission was found throughout the whole region, in contrast to the \ion{Si}{2}* $\lambda$1532 emission which was bright only within the \ion{H}{2} region. This indicates that the \ion{C}{4} line arises mostly at the shell boundaries of the bubbles, with a larger portion likely from the Loop I than from the Local Bubble side, whereas the \ion{Si}{2}* line is from the photoionized Spica nebula.

### Near-Infrared Detection of a Super-Thin Disk in NGC 891

We probe the disk structure of the nearby, massive, edge-on spiral galaxy NGC 891 with sub-arcsecond resolution JHKs-band images covering ~+/-10 kpc in radius and +/-5 kpc in height. We measure intrinsic surface brightness profiles using realistic attenuation corrections constrained from near- and mid-infrared (Spitzer) color maps and three-dimensional Monte-Carlo radiative-transfer models. In addition to the well-known thin and thick disks, a super-thin disk with 60-80 pc scale-height – comparable to the star-forming disk of the Milky Way – is visibly evident and required to fit the attenuation-corrected light distribution. Asymmetries in the super-thin disk light profile are indicative of young, hot stars producing regions of excess luminosity and bluer (attenuation-corrected) near-infrared color. To fit the inner regions of NGC 891, these disks must be truncated within ~3 kpc, with almost all their luminosity redistributed in a bar-like structure 50% thicker than the thin disk. There appears to be no classical bulge but rather a nuclear continuation of the super-thin disk. The super-thin, thin, thick, and bar components contribute roughly 30%, 42%, 13%, and 15% (respectively) to the total Ks-band luminosity. Disk axial ratios (length/height) decrease from 30 to 3 from super-thin to thick components. Both exponential and sech^2 vertical SB profiles fit the data equally well. We find that the super-thin disk is significantly brighter in the Ks-band than typically assumed in integrated SED models of NGC 891: it appears that in these models the excess flux, likely produced by young stars in the super-thin disk, has been mistakenly attributed to the thin disk.

### Radiation Transport for Explosive Outflows: A Multigroup Hybrid Monte Carlo Method [Replacement]

We explore Implicit Monte Carlo (IMC) and Discrete Diffusion Monte Carlo (DDMC) for radiation transport in high-velocity outflows with structured opacity. The IMC method is a stochastic computational technique for nonlinear radiation transport. IMC is partially implicit in time and may suffer in efficiency when tracking Monte Carlo particles through optically thick materials. DDMC accelerates IMC in diffusive domains. Abdikamalov extended IMC and DDMC to multigroup, velocity-dependent transport with the intent of modeling neutrino dynamics in core-collapse supernovae. Densmore has also formulated a multifrequency extension to the originally grey DDMC method. We rigorously formulate IMC and DDMC over a high-velocity Lagrangian grid for possible application to photon transport in the post-explosion phase of Type Ia supernovae. This formulation includes an analysis that yields an additional factor in the standard IMC-to-DDMC spatial interface condition. To our knowledge the new boundary condition is distinct from others presented in prior DDMC literature. The method is suitable for a variety of opacity distributions and may be applied to semi-relativistic radiation transport in simple fluids and geometries. Additionally, we test the code, called SuperNu, using an analytic solution having static material, as well as with a manufactured solution for moving material with structured opacities. Finally, we demonstrate with a simple source and 10 group logarithmic wavelength grid that IMC-DDMC performs better than pure IMC in terms of accuracy and speed when there are large disparities between the magnitudes of opacities in adjacent groups. We also present and test our implementation of the new boundary condition.

### Radiation Transport for Explosive Outflows: A Multigroup Hybrid Monte Carlo Method [Replacement]

We explore Implicit Monte Carlo (IMC) and Discrete Diffusion Monte Carlo (DDMC) for radiation transport in high-velocity outflows with structured opacity. The IMC method is a stochastic computational technique for nonlinear radiation transport. IMC is partially implicit in time and may suffer in efficiency when tracking Monte Carlo particles through optically thick materials. DDMC accelerates IMC in diffusive domains. Abdikamalov extended IMC and DDMC to multigroup, velocity-dependent transport with the intent of modeling neutrino dynamics in core-collapse supernovae. Densmore has also formulated a multifrequency extension to the originally grey DDMC method. We rigorously formulate IMC and DDMC over a high-velocity Lagrangian grid for possible application to photon transport in the post-explosion phase of Type Ia supernovae. This formulation includes an analysis that yields an additional factor in the standard IMC-to-DDMC spatial interface condition. To our knowledge the new boundary condition is distinct from others presented in prior DDMC literature. The method is suitable for a variety of opacity distributions and may be applied to semi-relativistic radiation transport in simple fluids and geometries. Additionally, we test the code, called SuperNu, using an analytic solution having static material, as well as with a manufactured solution for moving material with structured opacities. Finally, we demonstrate with a simple source and 10 group logarithmic wavelength grid that IMC-DDMC performs better than pure IMC in terms of accuracy and speed when there are large disparities between the magnitudes of opacities in adjacent groups. We also present and test our implementation of the new boundary condition.

### Spherical collapse and halo mass function in f(R) theories

We compute the critical density of collapse for spherically symmetric overdensities in a class of f(R) modified gravity models. For the first time we evolve the Einstein, scalar field and non-linear fluid equations, making the minimal simplifying assumptions that the metric potentials and scalar field remain quasi-static throughout the collapse. Initially evolving a top hat profile, we find that the density threshold for collapse depends significantly on the initial conditions imposed, specifically the choice of size and shape. By imposing `natural’ initial conditions, we obtain a fitting function for the spherical collapse delta_c as a function of collapse redshift, mass of the overdensity and f_{R0}, the background scalar field value at z=0. By extending delta_c into drifting and diffusing barrier within the context of excursion set theory, we obtain a realistic mass function that might be used to confront this class of scalar-tensor models with observations of dark matter halos. The proposed analytic formula for the halo mass function was tested against Monte Carlo random walks for a wide class of moving barriers and can therefore be applied to other modified gravity theories.

### Relativistic viscous hydrodynamics for heavy-ion collisions with ECHO-QGP [Replacement]

We present ECHO-QGP, a numerical code for $(3+1)$-dimensional relativistic viscous hydrodynamics designed for the modeling of the space-time evolution of the matter created in high energy nuclear collisions. The code has been built on top of the \emph{Eulerian Conservative High-Order} astrophysical code for general relativistic magneto-hydrodynamics [\emph{Del Zanna et al., Astron. Astrophys. 473, 11, 2007}] and here it has been upgraded to handle the physics of the Quark-Gluon Plasma. ECHO-QGP features second-order treatment of causal relativistic viscosity effects in both Minkowskian or Bjorken coordinates; partial or complete chemical equilibrium of hadronic species before kinetic freeze-out; initial conditions based on the optical Glauber model, including a Monte-Carlo routine for event-by-event fluctuating initial conditions; a freeze-out procedure based on the Cooper-Frye prescription. The code is extensively validated against several test problems and results always appear accurate, as guaranteed by the combination of the conservative (shock-capturing) approach and the high-order methods employed. ECHO-QGP can be extended to include evolution of the electromagnetic fields coupled to the plasma.

### Relativistic viscous hydrodynamics for heavy-ion collisions with ECHO-QGP [Cross-Listing]

We present ECHO-QGP, a numerical code for $(3+1)$-dimensional relativistic viscous hydrodynamics designed for the modeling of the space-time evolution of the matter created in high energy nuclear collisions. The code has been built on top of the \emph{Eulerian Conservative High-Order} astrophysical code for general relativistic magneto-hydrodynamics [\emph{Del Zanna et al., Astron. Astrophys. 473, 11, 2007}] and here it has been upgraded to handle the physics of the Quark-Gluon Plasma. ECHO-QGP features second-order treatment of causal relativistic viscosity effects in both Minkowskian or Bjorken coordinates; partial or complete chemical equilibrium of hadronic species before kinetic freeze-out; initial conditions based on the optical Glauber model, including a Monte-Carlo routine for event-by-event fluctuating initial conditions; a freeze-out procedure based on the Cooper-Frye prescription. The code is extensively validated against several test problems and results always appear accurate, as guaranteed by the combination of the conservative (shock-capturing) approach and the high-order methods employed. ECHO-QGP can be extended to include evolution of the electromagnetic fields coupled to the plasma.

### Optimal analysis of azimuthal features in the CMB

We present algorithms for searching for azimuthally symmetric features in CMB data. Our algorithms are fully optimal for masked all-sky data with inhomogeneous noise, computationally fast, simple to implement, and make no approximations. We show how to implement the optimal analysis in both Bayesian and frequentist cases. In the Bayesian case, our algorithm for evaluating the posterior likelihood is so fast that we can do a brute-force search over parameter space, rather than using a Monte Carlo Markov chain. Our motivating example is searching for bubble collisions, a pre-inflationary signal which can be generated if multiple tunneling events occur in an eternally inflating spacetime, but our algorithms are general and should be useful in other contexts.

### The First Hard X-Ray Power Spectral Density Functions of AGN

We present results of our Power Spectral Density (PSD) analysis of 30 AGN using the 58 month light curves from Swift’s Burst Alert Telescope (BAT) in the 14-150 keV band. PSDs were fit using a Monte Carlo based algorithm to take into account windowing effects and measurement error. All but one source were found to be fit very well using an unbroken power law with a slope of ~-1, consistent at low frequencies with previous studies in the 2-10 keV band, with no evidence of a break in the PSD. For 5 of the highest S/N sources we tested the energy dependence of the PSD and found no significant difference in the PSD at different energies. Unlike previous studies of X-ray variability in AGN, we do not find any significant correlations between the hard X-ray variability and different properties of the AGN including luminosity and black hole mass. The lack of break frequencies and correlations seem to indicate that AGN are similar to the high state of Galactic Black Holes.

### Diffuse emission of TeV Neutrinos and Gamma-rays from young pulsars by Photo-meson interaction in the galaxy

It’s generally believed that young and rapidly rotating pulsars are important sites of particle’s acceleration, in which protons can be accelerated to relativistic energy above the polar cap region if the magnetic moment is antiparallel to the spin axis($\vec{\mu}\cdot\vec{\Omega}<0$). To obtain the galactic diffusive neutrinos and gamma-rays for TeV, firstly,we use Monte Carlo(MC) method to generate a sample of young pulsars with ages less than $10^6$ yrs in our galaxy ; secondly, the neutrinos and high-energy gamma-rays can be produced through photomeson process with the interaction of energetic protons and soft X-ray photons ($p+\gamma\rightarrow \Delta^+\rightarrow n+\pi^+/p+\pi^0$) for single pulsar, and these X-ray photons come from the neutron star surface. The results suggest that the diffusive TeV flux of neutrinos are lower than background flux, which indicated it is difficult to be detected by the current neutrino telescopes.

### Using hierarchical octrees in Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations

A crucial aspect of 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer is the choice of the spatial grid used to partition the dusty medium. We critically investigate the use of octree grids in Monte Carlo dust radiative transfer, with two different octree construction algorithms (regular and barycentric subdivision) and three different octree traversal algorithms (top-down, neighbour list, and the bookkeeping method). In general, regular octree grids need higher levels of subdivision compared to the barycentric grids for a fixed maximum cell mass threshold criterion. The total number of grid cells, however, depends on the geometry of the model. Surprisingly, regular octree grid simulations turn out to be 10 to 20% more efficient in run time than the barycentric grid simulations, even for those cases where the latter contain fewer grid cells than the former. Furthermore, we find that storing neighbour lists for each cell in an octree, ordered according to decreasing overlap area, is worth the additional memory and implementation overhead: using neighbour lists can cut down the grid traversal by 20% compared to the traditional top-down method. In conclusion, the combination of a regular node subdivision and the neighbour list method results in the most efficient octree structure for Monte Carlo radiative transfer simulations.

### A sensitivity analysis of the WFCAM Transit Survey for short-period giant planets around M dwarfs

The WFCAM Transit Survey (WTS) is a near-infrared transit survey running on the United Kingdom Infrared Telescope (UKIRT), designed to discover planets around M dwarfs. The WTS acts as a poor-seeing backup programme for the telescope, and represents the first dedicated wide-field near-infrared transit survey. In this paper we describe the observing strategy of the WTS and the processing of the data to generate lightcurves. We describe the basic properties of our photometric data, and measure our sensitivity based on 950 observations. We show that the photometry reaches a precision of ~4mmag for the brightest unsaturated stars in lightcurves spanning almost 3 years. Optical (SDSS griz) and near-infrared (UKIRT ZYJHK) photometry is used to classify the target sample of 4600 M dwarfs with J magnitudes in the range 11-17. Most have spectral-types in the range M0-M2. We conduct Monte Carlo transit injection and detection simulations for short period (<10 day) Jupiter- and Neptune-sized planets to characterize the sensitivity of the survey. We investigate the recovery rate as a function of period and magnitude for 4 hypothetical star-planet cases: M0-2+Jupiter, M2-4+Jupiter, M0-2+Neptune, M2-4+Neptune. We find that the WTS lightcurves are very sensitive to the presence of Jupiter-sized short-period transiting planets around M dwarfs. Hot Neptunes produce a much weaker signal and suffer a correspondingly smaller recovery fraction. Neptunes can only be reliably recovered with the correct period around the rather small sample (~100) of the latest M dwarfs (M4-M9) in the WTS. The non-detection of a hot-Jupiter around an M dwarf by the WFCAM Transit Survey allows us to place an upper limit of 1.7-2.0 per cent (at 95 per cent confidence) on the planet occurrence rate.

### Three-Dimensional Dust Radiative Transfer [Replacement]

Cosmic dust is present in many astrophysical objects, and recent observations across the electromagnetic spectrum show that the dust distribution is often strongly three-dimensional (3D). Dust grains are effective in absorbing and scattering ultraviolet (UV)/optical radiation, and they re-emit the absorbed energy at infrared wavelengths. Understanding the intrinsic properties of these objects, including the dust itself, therefore requires 3D dust radiative transfer (RT) calculations. Unfortunately, the 3D dust RT problem is nonlocal and nonlinear, which makes it one of the hardest challenges in computational astrophysics. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made in the past decade, with an increasing number of codes capable of dealing with the complete 3D dust RT problem. We discuss the complexity of this problem, the two most successful solution techniques [ray-tracing (RayT) and Monte Carlo (MC)], and the state of the art in modeling observational data using 3D dust RT codes. We end with an outlook on the bright future of this field.

Cosmic dust is present in many astrophysical objects, and recent observations across the electromagnetic spectrum have revealed that the dust distribution is often strongly three-dimensional. Dust grains are effective in absorbing and scattering UV/optical radiation, and re-emit the absorbed energy at infrared wavelengths. Understanding the intrinsic properties of these objects, including the dust itself, therefore requires 3D dust radiative transfer calculations. Unfortunately, the 3D dust radiative transfer problem is non-local and non-linear, which makes it one of the hardest challenges in computational astrophysics. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made in the last decade, with an increasing number of codes capable of dealing with the complete 3D dust radiative transfer problem. We discuss the complexity of this problem, describe the two most successful solution techniques (Ray-Tracing and Monte Carlo), and discuss the state of the art in modeling observational data using 3D dust radiative transfer codes. We end with an outlook on the bright future of this field.

### Mock Observations of Blue Stragglers in Globular Cluster Models [Replacement]

We created artificial color-magnitude diagrams of Monte Carlo dynamical models of globular clusters, and then used observational methods to determine the number of blue stragglers in those clusters. We compared these blue stragglers to various cluster properties, mimicking work that has been done for blue stragglers in Milky Way globular clusters to determine the dominant formation mechanism(s) of this unusual stellar population. We find that a mass-based prescription for selecting blue stragglers will choose approximately twice as many blue stragglers than a selection criterion that was developed for observations of real clusters. However, the two numbers of blue stragglers are well-correlated, so either selection criterion can be used to characterize the blue straggler population of a cluster. We confirm previous results that the simplified prescription for the evolution of a collision or merger product in the BSE code overestimates their lifetimes. We show that our model blue stragglers follow similar trends with cluster properties (core mass, binary fraction, total mass, collision rate) as the true Milky Way blue stragglers, as long as we restrict ourselves to model clusters with an initial binary fraction higher than 5%. We also show that, in contrast to earlier work, the number of blue stragglers in the cluster core does have a weak dependence on the collisional parameter Gamma in both our models and in Milky Way globular clusters.

### Mock Observations of Blue Stragglers in Globular Cluster Models

We created artificial color-magnitude diagrams of Monte Carlo dynamical models of globular clusters, and then used observational methods to determine the number of blue stragglers in those clusters. We compared these blue stragglers to various cluster properties, mimicking work that has been done for blue stragglers in Milky Way globular clusters to determine the dominant formation mechanism(s) of this unusual stellar population. We find that a mass-based prescription for selecting blue stragglers will choose approximately twice as many blue stragglers than a selection criterion that was developed for observations of real clusters. However, the two numbers of blue stragglers are well-correlated, so either selection criterion can be used to characterize the blue straggler population of a cluster. We confirm previous results that the simplified prescription for the evolution of a collision or merger product in the BSE code overestimates the lifetime of collision products. Because our observationally-motivated selection criterion does not include the brightest collision products, we show that our model blue stragglers follow the same trends with cluster properties (core mass, binary fraction, total mass, collision rate) as the true Milky Way blue stragglers. The total number of blue stragglers in globular clusters is determined mainly by the properties and numbers of binary stars, and not the collision rate, even though the blue stragglers are formed through binary-mediated collisions.

### Is magnetic reconnection the cause of supersonic upflows in granular cells ?

In a previous work, we reported on the discovery of supersonic magnetic upflows on granular cells in data from the {\sc Sunrise}/IMaX instrument. In the present work we investigate the physical origin of these events employing data of the same instrument but with higher spectral sampling. By means of the inversion of Stokes profiles we are able to recover the physical parameters (temperature, magnetic field, line-of-sight velocity, etc) present in the solar photosphere at the time of these events. The inversion is performed in a Monte-Carlo-like fashion, that is, repeating it many times with different initializations and retaining only the best result. We find that many of the events are characterized by a reversal in the polarity of the magnetic field along the vertical direction in the photosphere, accompanied by an enhancement in the temperature and by supersonic line-of-sight velocities. In about half of the studied events, large blue-shifted and red-shifted line-of-sight velocities coexist above/below each other. These features can be explained in terms of magnetic reconnection, where the energy stored in the magnetic field is released in the form of kinetic and thermal energy when magnetic field lines of opposite polarities coalesce. However, the agreement with magnetic reconnection is not perfect and therefore, other possible physical mechanisms might also play a role.

### Is magnetic reconnection the cause of supersonic upflows in granular cells ? [Replacement]

In a previous work, we reported on the discovery of supersonic magnetic upflows on granular cells in data from the {\sc Sunrise}/IMaX instrument. In the present work we investigate the physical origin of these events employing data of the same instrument but with higher spectral sampling. By means of the inversion of Stokes profiles we are able to recover the physical parameters (temperature, magnetic field, line-of-sight velocity, etc) present in the solar photosphere at the time of these events. The inversion is performed in a Monte-Carlo-like fashion, that is, repeating it many times with different initializations and retaining only the best result. We find that many of the events are characterized by a reversal in the polarity of the magnetic field along the vertical direction in the photosphere, accompanied by an enhancement in the temperature and by supersonic line-of-sight velocities. In about half of the studied events, large blue-shifted and red-shifted line-of-sight velocities coexist above/below each other. These features can be explained in terms of magnetic reconnection, where the energy stored in the magnetic field is released in the form of kinetic and thermal energy when magnetic field lines of opposite polarities coalesce. However, the agreement with magnetic reconnection is not perfect and therefore, other possible physical mechanisms might also play a role.

### The Induced Electric Field Distribution in Solar Atmosphere

A method of calculating induced electric field is presented in this paper. Induced electric field in solar atmosphere is derived by the time variation of magnetic field when the charged particle accumulation is neglected. In order to get the spatial distribution of magnetic field, several extrapolation methods are introduced. With observational data from Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) aboard the NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) on May 20th, 2010, we extrapolate the magnetic field to the upper atmosphere from the photosphere. By calculating the time variation of magnetic field, we can get the induced electric field. The derived induced electric field can reach a value of 100 V/cm and the average electric field has a maximum point at the layer of 360 km above the photosphere. The Monte Carlo statistics method is used to compute the triple integration of induced electric field.

### The evolution of planetesimal swarms in self-gravitating protoplanetary discs

We investigate the kinematic evolution of planetesimals in self-gravitating discs, combining Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamical (SPH) simulations of the disc gas with a gravitationally coupled population of test particle planetesimals. We find that at radii of 10s of au (which is where we expect planetesimals to be possibly formed in such discs) the planetesimals’ eccentricities are rapidly pumped to values $>$ 0.1 within the timescales for which the disc is in the self-gravitating regime. The high resulting velocity dispersion and the lack of planetesimal concentration in the spiral arms means that the collision timescale is very long and that the effect of those collisions that do occur is destructive rather than leading to further planetesimal growth. We also use the SPH simulations to calibrate Monte Carlo dynamical experiments: these can be used to evolve the system over long timescales and can be compared with analytical solutions of the diffusion equation in particle angular momentum space. We find that if planetesimals are only formed in a belt at large radius then there is significant scattering of objects to small radii; nevertheless the majority of planetesimals remain at large radii. If planetesimals indeed form at early evolutionary stages, when the disc is strongly self-gravitating, then the results of this study constrain their spatial and kinematic distribution at the end of the self-gravitating phase.

### The parameter space in Galileon gravity models

We present the first constraints on the full parameter space of the Galileon modified gravity model, considering both the cosmological parameters and the coefficients which specify the additional terms in the Lagrangian due to the Galileon field, which we call the Galileon parameters. We use the latest cosmic microwave background measurements, along with distance measurements from supernovae and baryonic acoustic oscillations, performing a Monte Carlo Markov Chain exploration of the 9-dimensional parameter space. The integrated Sachs-Wolfe signal can be very different in Galileon models compared to standard gravity, making it essential to use the full CMB data rather than the CMB distance priors. We demonstrate that meaningful constraints are only possible in the Galileon parameter space after taking advantage of a scaling degeneracy. We find that the Galileon model can fit the WMAP 9-year results better than the standard \Lambda-Cold Dark Matter model, but gives a slightly worse fit overall once lower redshift distance measurements are included. The best-fitting cosmological parameters (e.g. matter density, scalar spectral index, fluctuation amplitude) can differ by more than 2\sigma\ in the Galileon model compared with \Lambda CDM. We highlight other potential constraints of the Galileon model using galaxy clustering and weak lensing measurements.

### The parameter space in Galileon gravity models [Replacement]

We present the first constraints on the full parameter space of the Galileon modified gravity model, considering both the cosmological parameters and the coefficients which specify the additional terms in the Lagrangian due to the Galileon field, which we call the Galileon parameters. We use the latest cosmic microwave background measurements, along with distance measurements from supernovae and baryonic acoustic oscillations, performing a Monte Carlo Markov Chain exploration of the 9-dimensional parameter space. The integrated Sachs-Wolfe signal can be very different in Galileon models compared to standard gravity, making it essential to use the full CMB data rather than the CMB distance priors. We demonstrate that meaningful constraints are only possible in the Galileon parameter space after taking advantage of a scaling degeneracy. We find that the Galileon model can fit the WMAP 9-year results better than the standard \Lambda-Cold Dark Matter model, but gives a slightly worse fit overall once lower redshift distance measurements are included. The best-fitting cosmological parameters (e.g. matter density, scalar spectral index, fluctuation amplitude) can differ by more than 2\sigma\ in the Galileon model compared with \Lambda CDM. We highlight other potential constraints of the Galileon model using galaxy clustering and weak lensing measurements.

### Near Infrared Circular Polarization Images of NGC 6334-V

We present results from deep imaging linear and circular polarimetry of the massive star-forming region NGC 6334- V. These observations show high degrees of circular polarization (CP), as much as 22 % in the Ks band, in the infrared nebula associated with the outflow. The CP has an asymmetric positive/negative pattern and is very extended (~80" or 0.65 pc). Both the high CP and its extended size are larger than those seen in the Orion CP region. Three-dimensional Monte Carlo light-scattering models are used to show that the high CP may be produced by scattering from the infrared nebula followed by dichroic extinction by an optically thick foreground cloud containing aligned dust grains. Our results show not only the magnetic field orientation of around young stellar objects but also the structure of circumstellar matter such as outflow regions and their parent molecular cloud along the line of sight. The detection of the large and extended CP in this source and the Orion nebula may imply the CP origin of the biological homochirality on Earth.

### A comparison study of CORSIKA and COSMOS simulations for extensive air showers

Cosmic rays with energy exceeding ~ 10^{18} eV are referred to as ultra-high energy cosmic rays (UHECRs). Monte Carlo codes for extensive air shower (EAS) simulate the development of EASs initiated by UHECRs in the Earth’s atmosphere. Experiments to detect UHECRs utilize EAS simulations to estimate their energy, arrival direction, and composition. In this paper, we compare EAS simulations with two different codes, CORSIKA and COSMOS, presenting quantities including the longitudinal distribution of particles, depth of shower maximum, kinetic energy distribution of particle at the ground, and energy deposited to the air. We then discuss implications of our results to UHECR experiments.

### The AGN dusty torus as a clumpy two-phase medium: radiative transfer modeling with SKIRT

We modeled the AGN dusty torus as a clumpy two-phase medium, with high-density clumps embedded in a low-density interclump dust. To obtain spectral energy distributions and images of the torus at different wavelengths, we employed the 3D Monte Carlo radiative transfer code SKIRT. Apart from the grid of two-phase models, we calculated the corresponding sets of clumps-only models and models with a smooth dust distribution for comparison. We found that the most striking feature of the two-phase model is that it might offer a natural solution to the common issue reported in a number of papers — the observed excess of the near-infrared emission.