Posts Tagged dust grains

Recent Postings from dust grains

The Distribution and Chemistry of H$_2$CO in the DM Tau Protoplanetary Disk

H$_2$CO ice on dust grains is an important precursor of complex organic molecules (COMs). H$_2$CO gas can be readily observed in protoplanetary disks and may be used to trace COM chemistry. However, its utility as a COM probe is currently limited by a lack of constraints on the relative contributions of two different formation pathways: on icy grain-surfaces and in the gas-phase. We use archival ALMA observations of the resolved distribution of H$_2$CO emission in the disk around the young low-mass star DM Tau to assess the relative importance of these formation routes. The observed H$_2$CO emission has a centrally peaked and radially broad brightness profile (extending out to 500 AU). We compare these observations with disk chemistry models with and without grain-surface formation reactions, and find that both gas and grain-surface chemistry are necessary to explain the spatial distribution of the emission. Gas-phase H$_2$CO production is responsible for the observed central peak, while grain-surface chemistry is required to reproduce the emission exterior to the CO snowline (where H$_2$CO mainly forms through the hydrogenation of CO ice before being non-thermally desorbed). These observations demonstrate that both gas and grain-surface pathways contribute to the observed H$_2$CO in disks, and that their relative contributions depend strongly on distance from the host star.

A Possible Mechanism for Overcoming the Electrostatic Barrier Against Dust Growth in Protoplanetary disks

The coagulation of dust particles under the conditions in protoplanetary disks is investigated. The study focuses on the repulsive electrostatic barrier against growth of charged dust grains. Taking into account the photoelectric effect leads to the appearance of a layer at intermediate heights where the dust has a close to zero charge, enabling the dust grains to grow efficiently. An increase in the coagulation rate comes about not only due to the lowering of the Coulomb barrier, but also because of the electrostatic attraction between grains of opposite charge due to the non-zero dispersion of the near-zero charge. Depending on the efficiency of mixing in the disk, the acceleration of the evolution of the dust in this layer could be important, both in the quasi-stationary stage of the disk evolution and during its dispersal.

A concentration of centimeter-sized grains in the Oph IRS 48 dust trap

Azimuthally asymmetric dust distributions observed with ALMA in transition disks have been interpreted as dust traps. We present VLA Ka band (34 GHz or 0.9 cm) and ALMA Cycle 2 Band 9 (680 GHz or 0.45 mm) observations at 0.2" resolution of the Oph IRS 48 disk, which suggest that larger particles could be more azimuthally concentrated than smaller dust grains, assuming an axisymmetric temperature field or optically thin 680 GHz emission. Fitting an intensity model to both data demonstrates that the azimuthal extent of the millimeter emission is 2.3 $\pm0.9$ times as wide as the centimeter emission, marginally consistent with the particle trapping mechanism under the above assumptions. The 34 GHz continuum image also reveals evidence for ionized gas emission from the star. Both the morphology and the spectral index variations are consistent with an increase of large particles in the center of the trap, but uncertainties remain due to the continuum optical depth at 680 GHz. Particle trapping has been proposed in planet formation models to allow dust particles to grow beyond millimeter sizes in the outer regions of protoplanetary disks. The new observations in the Oph IRS 48 disk provide support for the dust trapping mechanism for centimeter-sized grains, although additional data is required for definitive confirmation.

Grain size constraints on HL Tau with polarization signature

We report a new interpretation of the millimeter-wave polarization of the protoplanetary disk around HL Tau with self-polarization. We successfully reproduce the observed polarization signature with self-scattered light of dust grains. The detected polarization can be explained only if dust grains have a maximum size of around 150 ${\rm \mu m}$. This is a strong constraint on grain size in the early stage of a circumstellar disk. The obtained grain size contradicts to previously expected grain size, which is millimeter. The inferred grain size is too small to be trapped at gas pressure bumps, and therefore it requires planet formation theory to explain the mechanism to stop the grain growth or it might suggest the dust grains are no longer spherical but highly porous.

Modelling dust extinction in the Magellanic Clouds

We model the extinction profiles observed in the Small and Large Magellanic clouds with a synthetic population of dust grains consisting by core-mantle particles and a collection of free-flying polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. All different flavors of the extinction curves observed in the Magellanic Clouds can be described by the present model, that has been previously (successfully) applied to a large sample of diffuse and translucent lines of sight in the Milky Way. We find that in the Magellanic Clouds the extinction produced by classic grains is generally larger than absorption by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Within this model, the non-linear far-UV rise is accounted for by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, whose presence in turn is always associated to a gap in the size distribution of classical particles. This hints either a physical connection between (e.g., a common cause for) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the absence of middle-sized dust particles, or the need for an additional component in the model, that can account for the non-linear far-UV rise without contributing to the UV bump at $\sim$217 nm, e.g., nanodiamonds.

Sputtering of Oxygen Ice by Low Energy Ions

Naturally occurring ices lie on both interstellar dust grains and on celestial objects, such as those in the outer solar system. These ices are continu- ously subjected to irradiation by ions from the solar wind and/or cosmic rays, which modify their surfaces. As a result, new molecular species may form which can be sputtered off into space or planetary atmospheres. We determined the experimental values of sputtering yields for irradiation of oxygen ice at 10 K by singly (He+, C+, N+, O+ and Ar+) and doubly (C2+, N2+ and O2+) charged ions with 4 keV kinetic energy. In these laboratory experiments, oxygen ice was deposited and irradiated by ions in an ultra high vacuum chamber at low temperature to simulate the environment of space. The number of molecules removed by sputtering was observed by measurement of the ice thickness using laser interferometry. Preliminary mass spectra were taken of sputtered species and of molecules formed in the ice by temperature programmed desorption (TPD). We find that the experimental sputtering yields increase approximately linearly with the projectile ion mass (or momentum squared) for all ions studied. No difference was found between the sputtering yield for singly and doubly charged ions of the same atom within the experimental uncertainty, as expected for a process dominated by momentum transfer. The experimental sputter yields are in good agreement with values calculated using a theoretical model except in the case of oxygen ions. Preliminary studies have shown molecular oxygen as the dominant species sputtered and TPD measurements indicate ozone formation.

Sputtering of Oxygen Ice by Low Energy Ions [Replacement]

Naturally occurring ices lie on both interstellar dust grains and on celestial objects, such as those in the outer solar system. These ices are continu- ously subjected to irradiation by ions from the solar wind and/or cosmic rays, which modify their surfaces. As a result, new molecular species may form which can be sputtered off into space or planetary atmospheres. We determined the experimental values of sputtering yields for irradiation of oxygen ice at 10 K by singly (He+, C+, N+, O+ and Ar+) and doubly (C2+, N2+ and O2+) charged ions with 4 keV kinetic energy. In these laboratory experiments, oxygen ice was deposited and irradiated by ions in an ultra high vacuum chamber at low temperature to simulate the environment of space. The number of molecules removed by sputtering was observed by measurement of the ice thickness using laser interferometry. Preliminary mass spectra were taken of sputtered species and of molecules formed in the ice by temperature programmed desorption (TPD). We find that the experimental sputtering yields increase approximately linearly with the projectile ion mass (or momentum squared) for all ions studied. No difference was found between the sputtering yield for singly and doubly charged ions of the same atom within the experimental uncertainty, as expected for a process dominated by momentum transfer. The experimental sputter yields are in good agreement with values calculated using a theoretical model except in the case of oxygen ions. Preliminary studies have shown molecular oxygen as the dominant species sputtered and TPD measurements indicate ozone formation.

The Evolution of Dust Mass in the Ejecta of SN1987A

We present a new analysis of the infrared (IR) emission from the ejecta of SN1987A covering days 615, 775, 1144, 8515, and 9090 after the explosion. We show that the observations are consistent with the rapid formation of about 0.4 Msun of dust, consisting of mostly silicates, near day 615, and evolving to about 0.45 Msun of composite dust grains consisting of ~0.4 Msun of silicates and ~ 0.05 Msun of amorphous carbon after day ~8500. The proposed scenario challenges previous claims that dust in SN ejecta is predominantly carbon, and that it grew from an initial mass of ~1e-3 Msun, to over 0.5 Msun by cold accretion. It alleviates several problems with previous interpretations of the data: (1) it reconciles the abundances of silicon, magnesium, and carbon with the upper limits imposed by nucleosynthesis calculations; (2) it eliminates the requirement that most of the dust observed around day 9000 grew by cold accretion onto the1e-3 Msun of dust previously inferred for days 615 and 775 after the explosion; and (3) establishes the dominance of silicate over carbon dust in the SN ejecta. At early epochs, the IR luminosity of the dust is powered by the radioactive decay of 56Co, and at late times by at least (1.3-1.6)e-4 Msun 44Ti. Even if only a fraction greater than ~10% of the silicate dust survives the injection into the ISM, the observations firmly establish the role of core collapse SNe as the major source of thermally condensed silicate dust in the universe.

Numerical Simulations of Turbulent Molecular Clouds Regulated by Reprocessed Radiation Feedback from Nascent Super Star Clusters

Radiation feedback from young star clusters embedded in giant molecular clouds (GMCs) is believed to be important to the control of star formation. For the most massive and dense clouds, including those in which super star clusters (SSCs) are born, pressure from reprocessed radiation exerted on dust grains may disperse a significant portion of the cloud mass back into the interstellar medium (ISM). Using our radiaton hydrodynamics (RHD) code, Hyperion, we conduct a series of numerical simulations to test this idea. Our models follow the evolution of self-gravitating, strongly turbulent clouds in which collapsing regions are replaced by radiating sink particles representing stellar clusters. We evaluate the dependence of the star formation efficiency (SFE) on the size and mass of the cloud and $\kappa$, the opacity of the gas to infrared (IR) radiation. We find that the single most important parameter determining the evolutionary outcome is $\kappa$, with $\kappa \gtrsim 15 \text{ cm}^2 \text{ g}^{-1}$ needed to disrupt clouds. For $\kappa = 20-40 \text{ cm}^2 \text{ g}^{-1}$, the resulting SFE=50-70% is similar to empirical estimates for some SSC-forming clouds. The opacities required for GMC disruption likely apply only in dust-enriched environments. We find that the subgrid model approach of boosting the direct radiation force $L/c$ by a "trapping factor" equal to a cloud’s mean IR optical depth can overestimate the true radiation force by factors of $\sim 4-5$. We conclude that feedback from reprocessed IR radiation alone is unlikely to significantly reduce star formation within GMCs unless their dust abundances or cluster light-to-mass ratios are enhanced.

An Insolation Activated Dust Layer on Mars

The illuminated dusty surface of Mars acts like a gas pump. It is driven by thermal creep at low pressure within the soil. In the top soil layer this gas flow has to be sustained by a pressure gradient. This is equivalent to a lifting force on the dust grains. The top layer is therefore under tension which reduces the threshold wind speed for saltation. We carried out laboratory experiments to quantify the thickness of this activated layer. We use basalt with an average particle size of 67 $\mu$m. We find a depth of the active layer of 100 to 200 $\rm \mu m$. Scaled to Mars the activation will reduce threshold wind speeds for saltation by about 10%.

Toroidal vortices and the conglomeration of dust into rings in protoplanetary discs

We identify a new hydrodynamical instability in protoplanetary discs that may arise due to variations in the dust-to-gas ratio and may lead to concentration of dust grains within a disc. The instability can arise due to dust settling, which produces a vertical compositional entropy gradient. The entropy gradient drives a baroclinic instability that is capable of creating toroidal gas vortices that gather dust into rings. Such dust rings are potentially observable via continuum emission of the dust or scattered light. Indeed, this instability may offer an explanation for the rings recently observed in the discs around the young stars HL Tau and TW Hya that does not rely on clearing by protoplanets. The instability may also have wider ramifications, potentially aiding dust agglomeration, altering the radial migration of larger planetesimals, and modifying angular momentum transport within a disc.

Dusty galaxies and the degeneracy between their dust distributions and the attenuation formula

Do spatial distributions of dust grains in galaxies have typical forms, as do spatial distributions of stars? We investigate whether or not the distributions resemble uniform foreground screens, as commonly assumed by the high-redshift galaxy community. We use rest-frame infrared, ultraviolet, and H$\alpha$ line luminosities of dust-poor and dusty galaxies at z ~ 0 and z ~ 1 to compare measured H$\alpha$ escape fractions with those predicted by the Calzetti attenuation formula. The predictions, based on UV escape fractions, overestimate the measured H$\alpha$ escape fractions for all samples. The interpretation of this result for dust-poor z ~ 0 galaxies is that regions with ionizing stars have more dust than regions with nonionizing UV-emitting stars. Dust distributions for these galaxies are nonuniform. The interpretation of the overestimates for dusty galaxies at both redshifts is less clear. If the attenuation formula is inapplicable to these galaxies, perhaps the disagreements are unphysical; perhaps dust distributions in these galaxies are uniform. If the attenuation formula does apply, then dusty galaxies have nonuniform dust distributions; the distributions are more uniform than they are in dust-poor galaxies. A broad range of H$\alpha$ escape fractions at a given UV escape fraction for z ~ 1 dusty galaxies, if real, indicates diverse dust morphologies and the implausibility of the screen assumption.

New observations and models of circumstellar CO line emission of AGB stars in the Herschel SUCCESS programme

CONTEXT: Asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars are in one of the latest evolutionary stages of low to intermediate-mass stars. Their vigorous mass loss has a significant effect on the stellar evolution, and is a significant source of heavy elements and dust grains for the interstellar medium. The mass-loss rate can be well traced by carbon monoxide (CO) line emission. AIMS: We present new \textit{Herschel} HIFI and IRAM 30m telescope CO line data for a sample of 53 galactic AGB stars. The lines cover a fairly large range of excitation energy from the $J=1\to0$ line to the $J=9\to8$ line, and even the $J=14\to13$ line in a few cases. We perform radiative transfer modelling for 38 of these sources to estimate their mass-loss rates. METHODS: We used a radiative transfer code based on the Monte Carlo method to model the CO line emission. We assume spherically symmetric circumstellar envelopes that are formed by a constant mass-loss rate through a smoothly accelerating wind. RESULTS: We find models that are consistent across a broad range of CO lines for most of the stars in our sample, i.e., a large number of the circumstellar envelopes can be described with a constant mass-loss rate. We also find that an accelerating wind is required to fit, in particular, the higher-J lines and that a velocity law will have a significant effect on the model line intensities. The results cover a wide range of mass-loss rates ($\sim 10^{-8}$ to $2\times 10^{-5}~\mathrm{M}_\odot~\mathrm{ yr}^{-1}$) and gas expansion velocities (2 to $21.5$~ km s$^{-1}$), and include M-, S-, and C-type AGB stars. Our results generally agree with those of earlier studies, although we tend to find slightly lower mass-loss rates by about 40\%, on average. We also present "bonus" lines detected during our CO observations.

New observations and models of circumstellar CO line emission of AGB stars in the Herschel SUCCESS programme [Replacement]

CONTEXT: Asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars are in one of the latest evolutionary stages of low to intermediate-mass stars. Their vigorous mass loss has a significant effect on the stellar evolution, and is a significant source of heavy elements and dust grains for the interstellar medium. The mass-loss rate can be well traced by carbon monoxide (CO) line emission. AIMS: We present new Herschel HIFI and IRAM 30m telescope CO line data for a sample of 53 galactic AGB stars. The lines cover a fairly large range of excitation energy from the $J=1\to0$ line to the $J=9\to8$ line, and even the $J=14\to13$ line in a few cases. We perform radiative transfer modelling for 38 of these sources to estimate their mass-loss rates. METHODS: We used a radiative transfer code based on the Monte Carlo method to model the CO line emission. We assume spherically symmetric circumstellar envelopes that are formed by a constant mass-loss rate through a smoothly accelerating wind. RESULTS: We find models that are consistent across a broad range of CO lines for most of the stars in our sample, i.e., a large number of the circumstellar envelopes can be described with a constant mass-loss rate. We also find that an accelerating wind is required to fit, in particular, the higher-J lines and that a velocity law will have a significant effect on the model line intensities. The results cover a wide range of mass-loss rates ($\sim 10^{-8}$ to $2\times 10^{-5}~\mathrm{M}_\odot~\mathrm{ yr}^{-1}$) and gas expansion velocities (2 to $21.5$ km s$^{-1}$), and include M-, S-, and C-type AGB stars. Our results generally agree with those of earlier studies, although we tend to find slightly lower mass-loss rates by about 40%, on average. We also present "bonus" lines detected during our CO observations.

Dust Cooling in Supernova Remnants in the Large Magellanic Cloud

The infrared-to-X-ray (IRX) flux ratio traces the relative importance of dust cooling to gas cooling in astrophysical plasma such as supernova remnants (SNRs). We derive IRX ratios of SNRs in the LMC using Spitzer and Chandra SNR survey data and compare them with those of Galactic SNRs. IRX ratios of all the SNRs in the sample are found to be moderately greater than unity, indicating that dust grains are a more efficient coolant than gas although gas cooling may not be negligible. The IRX ratios of the LMC SNRs are systematically lower than those of the Galactic SNRs. As both dust cooling and gas cooling pertain to the properties of the interstellar medium, the lower IRX ratios of the LMC SNRs may reflect the characteristics of the LMC, and the lower dust-to- gas ratio (a quarter of the Galactic value) is likely to be the most significant factor. The observed IRX ratios are compared with theoretical predictions that yield IRX ratios an order of magnitude larger. This discrepancy may originate from the dearth of dust in the remnants due to either the local variation of the dust abundance in the preshock medium with respect to the canonical abundance or the dust destruction in the postshock medium. The non-equilibrium ionization cooling of hot gas, in particular for young SNRs, may also cause the discrepancy. Finally, we discuss implications for the dominant cooling mechanism of SNRs in low-metallicity galaxies.

A SMACK Model of Colliding Planetesimals and Dust in the $\beta$ Pictoris Debris Disk: Thermal Radiation and Scattered Light

We present a new model of the $\beta$ Pictoris disk-and-planet system that simulates both the planetesimal collisions and the dynamics of the resulting dust grains, allowing us to model features and asymmetries in both thermal and scattered light images of the disk. Given the observed inclination and eccentricity of the $\beta$ Pictoris b planet, the model neatly ties together several features of the disk: the central hole in the submillimeter images, the two-disk "x"-pattern seen in scattered light, the "wing-tilt" asymmetry, and possibly even the clumpy gas seen by ALMA. We also find that most of the dust in the $\beta$ Pictoris system is likely produced outside the ring at 60-100 AU. Instead of a birth ring, this disk has a "stirring ring" at 60-100 AU where the high-velocity collisions produced by the secular wave launched by the planet are concentrated. The two-disk x-pattern arises because collisions occur more frequently at the peaks and troughs of the secular wave. The perturbations of the disk in this region create an azimuthally and vertically asymmetric spatial distribution of collisions, which could yield an azimuthal clump of gas without invoking resonances or an additional planet.

Benchmarking the Calculation of Stochastic Heating and Emissivity of Dust Grains in the Context of Radiative Transfer Simulations

We define an appropriate problem for benchmarking dust emissivity calculations in the context of radiative transfer (RT) simulations, specifically including the emission from stochastically heated dust grains. Our aim is to provide a self-contained guide for implementors of such functionality, and to offer insights in the effects of the various approximations and heuristics implemented by the participating codes to accelerate the calculations. The benchmark problem definition includes the optical and calorimetric material properties, and the grain size distributions, for a typical astronomical dust mixture with silicate, graphite and PAH components; a series of analytically defined radiation fields to which the dust population is to be exposed; and instructions for the desired output. We process this problem using six RT codes participating in this benchmark effort, and compare the results to a reference solution computed with the publicly available dust emission code DustEM. The participating codes implement different heuristics to keep the calculation time at an acceptable level. We study the effects of these mechanisms on the calculated solutions, and report on the level of (dis)agreement between the participating codes. For all but the most extreme input fields, we find agreement within 10% across the important wavelength range from 3 to 1000 micron. We conclude that the relevant modules in RT codes can and do produce fairly consistent results for the emissivity spectra of stochastically heated dust grains.

A stochastic model and Monte Carlo algorithm for fluctuation-induced H$_2$ formation on the surface of interstellar dust grains

A stochastic algorithm for simulation of fluctuation-induced kinetics of H$_2$ formation on grain surfaces is suggested as a generalization of the technique developed in our recent studies where this method was developed to describe the annihilation of spatially separate electrons and holes in a disordered semiconductor. The stochastic model is based on the spatially inhomogeneous, nonlinear integro-differential Smoluchowski equations with random source term. In this paper we derive the general system of Smoluchowski type equations for the formation of H$_2$ from two hydrogen atoms on the surface of interstellar dust grains with physisorption and chemisorption sites. We focus in this study on the spatial distribution, and numerically investigate the segregation in the case of a source with a continuous generation in time and randomly distributed in space. The stochastic particle method presented is based on a probabilistic interpretation of the underlying process as a stochastic Markov process of interacting particle system in discrete but randomly progressed time instances. The segregation is analyzed through the correlation analysis of the vector random field of concentrations which appears to be isotropic in space and stationary in time.

The accumulation and trapping of grains at planet gaps: effects of grain growth and fragmentation

We model the dust evolution in protoplanetary disks with full 3D, Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH), two-phase (gas+dust) hydrodynamical simulations. The gas+dust dynamics, where aerodynamic drag leads to the vertical settling and radial migration of grains, is consistently treated. In a previous work, we characterized the spatial distribution of non-growing dust grains of different sizes in a disk containing a gap-opening planet and investigated the gap’s detectability with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). Here we take into account the effects of grain growth and fragmentation and study their impact on the distribution of solids in the disk. We show that rapid grain growth in the two accumulation zones around planet gaps is strongly affected by fragmentation. We discuss the consequences for ALMA observations.

Runaway growth of fractal dust grains

Fractal grains have large surface area, which leads to more efficient condensation. The special limit case where the volume-area ratio is constant (corresponding to, e.g., a very rough grain surface or non-compacts aggregates) is particularly interesting, as well as convenient, from a mathematical point of view. If dust grains from AGB stars have `rough surfaces’, it may have important implications for our understanding of dust and wind formation in AGB stars.

Homogeneous dust emission and jet structure near active cometary nuclei: the case of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko [Replacement]

We compute trajectories of dust grains starting from a homogeneous surface activity-profile on a irregularly shaped cometary nucleus. Despite the initially homogeneous dust distribution a collimation in jet-like structures becomes visible. The fine structure is caused by concave topographical features with similar bundles of normal vectors. The model incorporates accurately determined gravitational forces, rotation of the nucleus, and gas-dust interaction. Jet-like dust structures are obtained for a wide range of gas-dust interactions. For the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, we derive the global dust distribution around the nucleus and find several areas of agreement between the homogeneous dust emission model and the Rosetta observation of dust jets, including velocity-dependent bending of trajectories.

Homogeneous dust emission and jet structure near active cometary nuclei: the case of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko

We compute trajectories of dust grains starting from a homogeneous surface activity-profile. Despite the homogeneous initial distribution a collimation in jet-like structures becomes visible. The fine structure is caused by topographical features with similar bundles of normal vectors. Gravitational forces are accurately determined from the triangular surface mesh. For the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, we find several areas of good agreement between the homogeneous dust emission model and Rosetta observation of dust jets.

Homogeneous dust emission and jet structure near active cometary nuclei: the case of 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko [Replacement]

We compute trajectories of dust grains starting from a homogeneous surface activity-profile on a irregularly shaped cometary nucleus. Despite the initially homogeneous dust distribution a collimation in jet-like structures becomes visible. The fine structure is caused by concave topographical features with similar bundles of normal vectors. Gravitational forces are accurately determined from the surface mesh and the rotation of the nucleus is fully incorporated. The jet-like structures are obtained and persist for a wide range of gas-drag forces, which are obtained from the model. For the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, we find several areas of good agreement between the homogeneous dust emission model and Rosetta observation of dust jets, including velocity-dependent bending of trajectories.

Tables of phase functions, opacities, albedos, equilibrium temperatures, and radiative accelerations of dust grains in exoplanets

There has been growing observational evidence for the presence of condensates in the atmospheres and/or comet-like tails of extrasolar planets. As a result, systematic and homogeneous tables of dust properties are useful in order to facilitate further observational and theoretical studies. In this paper we present calculations and analysis of non-isotropic phase functions, asymmetry parameter (mean cosine of the scattering angle), absorption and scattering opacities, single scattering albedos, equilibrium temperatures, and radiative accelerations of dust grains relevant for extrasolar planets. Our assumptions include spherical grain shape, Deirmendjian particle size distribution, and Mie theory. We consider several species: corundum/alumina, iron, olivines with 0% and 50% iron content, pyroxenes with 0%, 20% and 60% iron content, carbon at two different temperatures, water ice, liquid water, and ammonia. The presented tables cover the wavelength range of 0.2 to 500 micron and modal particle radii from 0.01 micron to 100 micron. Equilibrium temperatures and radiative accelerations assume irradiation by a non-black-body source of light with temperatures from 7000K to 700K seen at solid angles from 2$\pi$ to $10^{-6}$ sr. The tables are provided to the community together with a simple code which allows for an optional, finite, angular dimension of the source of light (star) in the phase function.

A compact concentration of large grains in the HD142527 protoplanetary dust trap

A pathway to the formation of planetesimals, and eventually giant planets, may occur in concentrations of dust grains trapped in pressure maxima. Dramatic crescent-shaped dust concentrations have been seen in recent radio images at sub-mm wavelengths. These disk asymmetries could represent the initial phases of planet formation in the dust trap scenario, provided that grain sizes are spatially segregated. A testable prediction of azimuthal dust trapping is that progressively larger grains should be more sharply confined and furthermore the trapped grains should follow a distribution that is markedly different from the gas. However, gas tracers such as CO and the infrared emission from small grains are both very optically thick where the submm continuum originates, so observations have been unable to test the trapping predictions or to identify compact concentrations of larger grains required for planet formation by core-accretion. Here we report multifrequency observations of HD142527, from 34GHz to 700GHz, that reveal a compact concentration of ~cm-sized grains, with a few Earth masses, embedded in a large-scale crescent of ~mm-sized particles. The emission peaks at wavelengths shorter than ~1mm are optically thick and trace the temperature structure resulting from shadows cast by the inner regions. Given this temperature structure, we infer that the largest dust grains are concentrated in the 34 GHz clump. We conclude that dust trapping is efficient for approximately cm-sized grains and leads to enhanced concentrations, while the smaller grains largely reflect the gas distribution.

Wind acceleration in AGB stars: Solid ground and loose ends

The winds of cool luminous AGB stars are commonly assumed to be driven by radiative acceleration of dust grains which form in the extended atmospheres produced by pulsation-induced shock waves. The dust particles gain momentum by absorption or scattering of stellar photons, and they drag along the surrounding gas particles through collisions, triggering an outflow. This scenario, here referred to as Pulsation-Enhanced Dust-DRiven Outflow (PEDDRO), has passed a range of critical observational tests as models have developed from empirical and qualitative to increasingly self-consistent and quantitative. A reliable theory of mass loss is an essential piece in the bigger picture of stellar and galactic chemical evolution, and central for determining the contribution of AGB stars to the dust budget of galaxies. In this review, I discuss the current understanding of wind acceleration and indicate areas where further efforts by theorists and observers are needed.

Compact dust concentration in the MWC 758 protoplanetary disk

The formation of planetesimals requires that primordial dust grains grow from micron- to km-sized bodies. Dust traps caused by gas pressure maxima have been proposed as regions where grains can concentrate and grow fast enough to form planetesimals, before radially migrating onto the star. We report new VLA Ka & Ku observations of the protoplanetary disk around the Herbig Ae/Be star MWC 758. The Ka image shows a compact emission region in the outer disk indicating a strong concentration of big dust grains. Tracing smaller grains, archival ALMA data in band 7 continuum shows extended disk emission with an intensity maximum to the north-west of the central star, which matches the VLA clump position. This segregation of grains sizes is expected in the context of dust trapping, where big grains are trapped more easily than smaller grains in gas pressure maxima. We develop a non-axisymmetric parametric model inspired by a steady state vortex solution which reproduces the observations, including the spectral energy distribution. Finally, we compare the radio continuum with SPHERE scattered light data. The ALMA continuum spatially coincides with a region devoid of scattered polarised emission and the VLA clump is offset to the north of the north-western spiral-like feature, indicating moderate or no flaring in the outer disk.

Far-ultraviolet study of the local supershell GSH 006-15+7

We have analyzed the archival data of FUV observations for the region of GSH 006-15+7, a large shell-like structure discovered by Moss et al. (2012) from the H I velocity maps. FUV emission is seen to be enhanced in the lower supershell region. The FUV emission is considered to come mainly from the scattering of interstellar photons by dust grains. A corresponding Monte Carlo simulation indicates that the distance to the supershell is 1300 +- 800 pc, which is similar to the previous estimation of 1500 +- 500 pc based on kinematic considerations. The spectrum at lower Galactic latitudes of the supershell exhibits molecular hydrogen fluorescence lines; a simulation model for this candidate photodissociation region (PDR) yields an H_2 column density of N(H_2) = 10^{18.0-20.0} cm^{-2} with a rather high total hydrogen density of n_H ~ 30 cm^{-3}.

Inhomogeneous cloud coverage through the Coulomb explosion of dust in substellar atmospheres

Recent observations of brown dwarf spectroscopic variability in the infrared infer the presence of patchy cloud cover. This paper proposes a mechanism for producing inhomogeneous cloud coverage due to the depletion of cloud particles through the Coulomb explosion of dust in atmospheric plasma regions. Charged dust grains Coulomb-explode when the electrostatic stress of the grain exceeds its mechanical tensile stress, which results in grains below a critical radius $a<a^{\rm Coul}_{\rm crit}$ being broken up. This work outlines the criteria required for the Coulomb explosion of dust clouds in substellar atmospheres, the effect on the dust particle size distribution function, and the resulting radiative properties of the atmospheric regions. Our results show that for an atmospheric plasma region with an electron temperature of $T_{e}=10$~eV ($\approx10^{5}$~K), the critical grain radius varies from $10^{-7}$ to $10^{-4}$~cm, depending on the grains’ tensile strength. Higher critical radii up to $10^{-3}$~cm are attainable for higher electron temperatures. We find that the process produces a bimodal particle size distribution composed of stable nanoscale seed particles and dust particles with $a\geq a^{\rm Coul}_{\rm crit}$, with the intervening particle sizes defining a region devoid of dust. As a result, the dust population is depleted, and the clouds become optically thin in the wavelength range $0.1-10~\mu$m, with a characteristic peak that shifts to higher wavelengths as more sub-micrometer particles are destroyed. In an atmosphere populated with a distribution of plasma volumes, this will yield regions of contrasting radiative properties, thereby giving a source of inhomogeneous cloud coverage. The results presented here may also be relevant for dust in supernova remnants and protoplanetary disks.

Dust Dynamics in Protoplanetary Disk Winds Driven by Magneto-Rotational Turbulence: A Mechanism for Floating Dust Grains with Characteristic Size

We investigate the dynamics of dust grains with various sizes in protoplanetary disk winds driven by magnetorotational turbulence, by simulating the time evolution of the dust grain distribution in the vertical direction. Small dust grains, which are well coupled to the gas, are dragged upward with the upflowing gas, while large grains remain near the midplane of a disk. Intermediate–size grains float at several scale heights from the midplane in time-averated force balance between the downward gravity and the upward gas drag. For the minimum mass solar nebula at 1 AU, dust grains with size of 20 — 40 $\mu m$ float at 5-10 scale heights from the midplane. Considering the dependence on the distance from the central star, smaller-size grains remain only in an outer region of the disk, while larger-size grains are distributed in a broader region. This implies that the dust depletion is expected to take place in small-to-large and inside-out manners. We also discuss the implication of our result to the observation of dusty material around young stellar objects.

A New Dust Budget In The Large Magellanic Cloud

The origin of dust in a galaxy is poorly understood. Recently, the surveys of the Large Magellanic Cloud (LMC) provide astrophysical laboratories for the dust studies. By a method of population synthesis, we investigate the contributions of dust produced by asymptotic giant branch (AGB) stars, common envelope (CE) ejecta and type II supernovae (SNe II) to the total dust budget in the LMC. Based on our models, the dust production rates (DPRs) of AGB stars in the LMC are between about $2.5\times10^{-5}$ and $4.0\times10^{-6}M_\odot{\rm yr^{-1}}$. The uncertainty mainly results from different models for the dust yields of AGB stars. The DPRs of CE ejecta are about $6.3\times10^{-6}$(The initial binary fraction is 50\%). These results are within the large scatter of several observational estimates. AGB stars mainly produce carbon grains, which is consistent with the observations. Most of dust grains manufactured by CE ejecta are silicate and iron grains. The contributions of SNe II are very uncertain. Compared with SNe II without reverse shock, the DPRs of AGB stars and CE ejecta are negligible. However, if only 2 \% of dust grains produced by SNe II can survive after reverse shock, the contributions of SNe II are very small. The total dust masses produced by AGB stars in the LMC are between $2.8\times10^4$ and $3.2\times10^5M_\odot$, and those produced by CE ejecta are about $6.3\times10^4$. They are much lower than the values estimated by observations. Therefore, there should be other dust sources in the LMC.

Survival and Structure of Dusty Vortices in Protoplanetary Discs

We have studied the impact of dust feedback on the survival and structure of vortices in protoplanetary discs using 2-D shearing box simulations with Lagrangian dust particles. We consider dust with a variety of sizes (stopping time $t_s = 10^{-2}\Omega^{-1} – 10^{2}\Omega^{-1}$, from fully coupled with the gas to the decoupling limit. We find that a vortex is destroyed by dust feedback when the total dust-to-gas mass ratio within the vortex is larger than 30-50%, independent of the dust size. The dust distribution can still be asymmetric in some cases after the vortex has been destroyed. With smaller amounts of dust, a vortex can survive for at least 100 orbits, and the maximum dust surface density within the vortex can be more than 100 times larger than the gas surface density, potentially facilitating planetesimal formation. On the other hand, in these stable vortices, small ($t_s < \Omega^{-1}$) and large ($t_s > \Omega^{-1}$) dust grains concentrate differently and affect the gas dynamics in different ways. The distribution of large dust is more elongated than that of small dust. Large dust ($t_s > \Omega^{-1}$) concentrates in the centre of the vortex and feedback leads to turn-over in vorticity towards the centre, forming a quiescent region within an anticyclonic vortex. Such a turn-over is absent if the vortex is loaded with small grains. We demonstrate that, in protoplanetary discs where both large and small dust grains are present and under the right condition, the concentration of large dust towards the vortex centre can lead to a quiescent centre, repelling the small dust and forming a small dust ring around the vortex centre. Such anticorrelations between small and large dust within vortices may explain the discrepancy between ALMA and near-IR scattered light observations in the asymmetric region of transitional discs.

Quantifying the gas inside dust cavities in transitional disks: implications for young planets

ALMA observations of a small sample of transitional disks with large dust cavities observed in Cycle 0 and 1 are summarized. The gas and dust surface density structures are inferred from the continuum and 12CO, 13CO and C18O line data using the DALI physical-chemical code. Thanks to its ability to self-shield, CO can survive inside dust cavities in spite of being exposed to intense UV radiation and can thus be used as a probe of the gas structure. Modeling of the existing data shows that gas is present inside the dust cavities in all cases, but at a reduced level compared with the gas surface density profile of the outer disk. The gas density decrease inside the dust cavity radius by factors of up to 10^4 suggests clearing by one or more planetary-mass companions. The accompanying pressure bumps naturally lead to trapping of the mm-sized dust grains observed in the ALMA images.

A fast and explicit algorithm for simulating the dynamics of small dust grains with smoothed particle hydrodynamics [Replacement]

We describe a simple method for simulating the dynamics of small grains in a dusty gas, relevant to micron-sized grains in the interstellar medium and grains of centimetre size and smaller in protoplanetary discs. The method involves solving one extra diffusion equation for the dust fraction in addition to the usual equations of hydrodynamics. This "diffusion approximation for dust" is valid when the dust stopping time is smaller than the computational timestep. We present a numerical implementation using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) that is conservative, accurate and fast. It does not require any implicit timestepping and can be straightforwardly ported into existing 3D codes.

A fast and explicit algorithm for simulating the dynamics of small dust grains with smoothed particle hydrodynamics

We describe a simple method for simulating the dynamics of small grains in a dusty gas, relevant to micron-sized grains in the interstellar medium and grains of centimetre size and smaller in protoplanetary discs. The method involves solving one extra diffusion equation for the dust fraction in addition to the usual equations of hydrodynamics. This "diffusion approximation for dust" is valid when the dust stopping time is smaller than the computational timestep. We present a numerical implementation using Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) that is conservative, accurate and fast. It does not require any implicit timestepping and can be straightforwardly ported into existing 3D codes.

Dust trapping by spiral arms in gravitationally unstable protostellar discs

In this paper we discuss the influence of gravitational instabilities in massive protostellar discs on the dynamics of dust grains. Starting from a Smoothed Particle Hydrodynamics (SPH) simulation, we have computed the evolution of the dust in a quasi-static gas density structure typical of self-gravitating disc. For different grain size distributions we have investigated the capability of spiral arms to trap particles. We have run 3D radiative transfer simulations in order to construct maps of the expected emission at (sub-)millimetre and near-infrared wavelengths. Finally, we have simulated realistic observations of our disc models at (sub-)millimetre and near-infrared wavelengths as they may appear with the Atacama Large Millimetre/sub-millimetre Array (ALMA) and the High-Contrast Coronographic Imager for Adaptive Optics (HiCIAO) in order to investigate whether there are observational signatures of the spiral structure. We find that the pressure inhomogeites induced by gravitational instabilities produce a non-negligible dynamical effect on centimetre sized particles leading to significant overdensities in spiral arms. We also find that the spiral structure is readily detectable by ALMA over a wide range of (sub-)millimetre wavelengths and by HiCIAO in near-infrared scattered light for non-face-on discs located in the Ophiucus star-forming region. In addition, we find clear spatial spectral index variations across the disc, revealing that the dust trapping produces a migration of large grains that can be potentially investigated through multi-wavelenghts observations in the (sub-)millimetric. Therefore, the spiral arms observed to date in protoplanetary disc might be interpreted as density waves induced by the development of gravitational instabilities.

Millimeter-wave polarization of protoplanetary disks due to dust scattering

We present a new method to constrain the grain size in protoplanetary disks with polarization observations at millimeter wavelengths. If dust grains are grown to the size comparable to the wavelengths, the dust grains are expected to have a large scattering opacity and thus the continuum emission is expected to be polarized due to self-scattering. We perform 3D radiative transfer calculations to estimate the polarization degree for the protoplanetary disks having radial Gaussian-like dust surface density distributions, which have been recently discovered. The maximum grain size is set to be $100 {\rm~\mu m}$ and the observing wavelength to be 870 ${\rm \mu m}$. We find that the polarization degree is as high as 2.5% with a subarcsec spatial resolution, which is likely to be detected with near-future ALMA observations. The emission is polarized due to scattering of anisotropic continuum emission. The map of the polarization degree shows a double peaked distribution and the polarization vectors are in the radial direction in the inner ring and in the azimuthal direction in the outer ring. We also find the wavelength dependence of the polarization degree: the polarized emission is strongest if dust grains have a maximum size of $a_{\rm max}\sim\lambda/2\pi$, where $\lambda$ is the observing wavelength. Hence, multi-wave and spatially resolved polarization observations toward protoplanetary disks enable us to put a constraint on the grain size. The constraint on the grain size from polarization observations is independent of or may be even stronger than that from the opacity index.

Millimeter-wave polarization of protoplanetary disks due to dust scattering [Replacement]

We present a new method to constrain the grain size in protoplanetary disks with polarization observations at millimeter wavelengths. If dust grains are grown to the size comparable to the wavelengths, the dust grains are expected to have a large scattering opacity and thus the continuum emission is expected to be polarized due to self-scattering. We perform 3D radiative transfer calculations to estimate the polarization degree for the protoplanetary disks having radial Gaussian-like dust surface density distributions, which have been recently discovered. The maximum grain size is set to be $100 {\rm~\mu m}$ and the observing wavelength to be 870 ${\rm \mu m}$. We find that the polarization degree is as high as 2.5 % with a subarcsec spatial resolution, which is likely to be detected with near-future ALMA observations. The emission is polarized due to scattering of anisotropic continuum emission. The map of the polarization degree shows a double peaked distribution and the polarization vectors are in the radial direction in the inner ring and in the azimuthal direction in the outer ring. We also find the wavelength dependence of the polarization degree: the polarization degree is the highest if dust grains have a maximum size of $a_{\rm max}\sim\lambda/2\pi$, where $\lambda$ is the observing wavelength. Hence, multi-wave and spatially resolved polarization observations toward protoplanetary disks enable us to put a constraint on the grain size. The constraint on the grain size from polarization observations is independent of or may be even stronger than that from the opacity index.

Scattered Light from Dust in the Cavity of the V4046 Sgr Transition Disk

We report the presence of scattered light from dust grains located in the giant planet formation region of the circumbinary disk orbiting the ~20-Myr-old close (~0.045 AU separation) binary system V4046 Sgr AB based on observations with the new Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) instrument. These GPI images probe to within ~7 AU of the central binary with linear spatial resolution of ~3 AU, and are thereby capable of revealing dust disk structure within a region corresponding to the giant planets in our solar system. The GPI imaging reveals a relatively narrow (FWHM ~10 AU) ring of polarized near-infrared flux whose brightness peaks at ~14 AU. This ~14 AU radius ring is surrounded by a fainter outer halo of scattered light extending to ~45 AU, which coincides with previously detected mm-wave thermal dust emission. The presence of small grains that efficiently scatter starlight well inside the mm-wavelength disk cavity supports current models of planet formation that suggest planet-disk interactions can generate pressure traps that impose strong radial variations in the particle size distribution throughout the disk.

Impulsive Spot Heating and Thermal Explosion of Interstellar Grains Revisited

The problem of impulsive heating of dust grains in cold, dense interstellar clouds is revisited theoretically, with the aim to better understand leading mechanisms of the explosive desorption of icy mantles. It is rigorously shown that if the heating of a reactive medium occurs within a sufficiently localized spot (e.g., heating of mantles by cosmic rays), then the subsequent thermal evolution is characterized by a single dimensionless number $\lambda$. This number identifies a bifurcation between two distinct regimes: When $\lambda$ exceeds a critical value (threshold), the heat equation exhibits the explosive solution, i.e., the thermal (chemical) explosion is triggered. Otherwise, thermal diffusion causes the deposited heat to spread over the entire grain — this regime is commonly known as the whole-grain heating. The theory allows us to find a critical combination of the physical parameters that govern the explosion of icy mantles due to impulsive spot heating. In particular, the calculations suggest that heavy cosmic ray species (e.g., iron ions) colliding with dust are able to trigger the explosion. Based on the recently calculated local cosmic-ray spectra, the expected rate of the explosive desorption is estimated. The efficiency of the desorption, which affects all solid species independent of their binding energy, is shown to be comparable with other cosmic-ray desorption mechanisms typically considered in the literature. Also, the theory allows us to estimate maximum abundances of reactive species that may be stored in the mantles, which provides important constraints on available astrochemical models.

The silicate absorption profile in the ISM towards the heavily obscured nucleus of NGC 4418

The 9.7-micron silicate absorption profile in the interstellar medium provides important information on the physical and chemical composition of interstellar dust grains. Measurements in the Milky Way have shown that the profile in the diffuse interstellar medium is very similar to the amorphous silicate profiles found in circumstellar dust shells around late M stars, and narrower than the silicate profile in denser star-forming regions. Here, we investigate the silicate absorption profile towards the very heavily obscured nucleus of NGC 4418, the galaxy with the deepest known silicate absorption feature, and compare it to the profiles seen in the Milky Way. Comparison between the 8-13 micron spectrum obtained with TReCS on Gemini and the larger aperture spectrum obtained from the Spitzer archive indicates that the former isolates the nuclear emission, while Spitzer detects low surface brightness circumnuclear diffuse emission in addition. The silicate absorption profile towards the nucleus is very similar to that in the diffuse ISM in the Milky Way with no evidence of spectral structure from crystalline silicates or silicon carbide grains.

Variation of the ultraviolet extinction law across the Taurus-Auriga star forming complex. A GALEX based study

The Taurus-Auriga molecular complex (TMC) is the main laboratory for the study of low mass star formation. The density and properties of interstellar dust are expected to vary across the TMC. These variations trace important processes such as dust nucleation or the magnetic field coupling with the cloud. In this article, we show how the combination of near ultraviolet (NUV) and infrared (IR) photometry can be used to derive the strength of the 2175 \AA\ bump and thus any enhancement in the abundance of small dust grains and PAHs in the dust grains size distribution. This technique is applied to the envelope of the TMC, mapped by the GALEX All Sky Survey (AIS). UV and IR photometric data have been retrieved from the GALEX-AIS and the 2MASS catalogues. NUV and K-band star counts have been used to identify the areas in the cloud envelope where the 2175 \AA\ bump is weaker than in the diffuse ISM namely, the low column density extensions of L1495, L1498 and L1524 in Taurus, L1545, L1548, L1519, L1513 in Auriga and L1482-83 in the California region. This finding agrees with previous results on dust evolution derived from Spitzer data and suggests that dust grains begin to decouple from the environmental galactic magnetic field already in the envelope.

The Impact of Dust Evolution and Photoevaporation on Disk Dispersal

Protoplanetary disks are dispersed by viscous evolution and photoevaporation in a few million years; in the interim small, sub-micron sized dust grains must grow and form planets. The time-varying abundance of small grains in an evolving disk directly affects gas heating by far-ultraviolet photons, while dust evolution affects photoevaporation by changing the disk opacity and resulting penetration of FUV photons in the disk. Photoevaporative flows, in turn, selectively carry small dust grains leaving the larger particles—which decouple from the gas—behind in the disk. We study these effects by investigating the evolution of a disk subject to viscosity, photoevaporation by EUV, FUV and X-rays, dust evolution, and radial drift using a 1-D multi-fluid approach (gas + different dust grain sizes) to solve for the evolving surface density distributions. The 1-D evolution is augmented by 1+1D models constructed at each epoch to obtain the instantaneous disk structure and determine photoevaporation rates. The implementation of a dust coagulation/fragmentation model results in a marginal decrease in disk lifetimes when compared to models with no dust evolution; the disk lifetime is thus found to be relatively insensitive to the evolving dust opacity. We find that photoevaporation can cause significant reductions in the gas/dust mass ratio in the planet-forming regions of the disk as it evolves, and may result in a corresponding increase in heavy element abundances relative to hydrogen. We discuss implications for theories of planetesimal formation and giant planet formation, including the formation of gas-poor giants. After gas disk dispersal, $\sim 3\times 10^{-4}$ \ms\ of mass in solids typically remain, comparable to the solids inventory of our solar system.

Non-conservative evolution in Algols: where is the matter?

There is gathering indirect evidence suggesting non-conservative evolutions in Algols. However, the systemic mass-loss rate is poorly constrained by observations and generally set as a free parameter in binary-star evolution simulations. Moreover, systemic mass loss may lead to observational signatures that are still to be found. We investigate the impact of the outflowing gas and the possible presence of dust grains on the spectral energy distribution (SED). We used the 1D plasma code Cloudy and compared the results with the 3D Monte-Carlo radiative transfer code Skirt for dusty simulations. The circumbinary mass-distribution and binary parameters are computed with state-of-the-art binary calculations done with the Binstar evolution code. The outflowing material reduces the continuum flux-level of the stellar SED in the optical and UV. Due to the time-dependence of this effect, it may help to distinguish between different ejection mechanisms. Dust, if present, leads to observable infrared excesses even with low dust-to-gas ratios and traces the cold material at large distances from the star. By searching for such dust emission in the WISE catalogue, we found a small number of Algols showing infrared excesses, among which the two rather surprising objects SX Aur and CZ Vel. We find that some binary B[e] stars show the same strong Balmer continuum as we predict with our models. However, direct evidence of systemic mass loss is probably not observable in genuine Algols, since these systems no longer eject mass through the hotspot mechanism. Furthermore, owing to its high velocity, the outflowing material dissipates in a few hundred years. If hot enough, the hotspot may produce highly ionised species such as SiIV and observable characteristics that are typical of W Ser systems.

On the equivalent width of the Fe K$\alpha$ line produced by a dusty absorber in active galactic nuclei

Obscured AGNs provide an opportunity to study the material surrounding the central engine. Geometric and physical constraints on the absorber can be deduced from the reprocessed AGN emission. In particular, the obscuring gas may reprocess the nuclear X-ray emission producing a narrow Fe K$\alpha$ line and a Compton reflection hump. In recent years, models of the X-ray reflection from an obscuring torus have been computed; however, although the reflecting gas may be dusty, the models do not yet take into account the effects of dust on the predicted spectrum. We study this problem by analyzing two sets of models, with and without the presence of dust, using the one dimensional photo-ionization code Cloudy. The calculations are performed for a range of column densities ($22 <{\rm log}[N_H(\rm cm^{-2})]< 24.5$ ) and hydrogen densities ( $6 <{\rm log}[n_H(\rm cm^{-3})]< 8$). The calculations show the presence of dust can enhance the Fe K$\alpha$ equivalent width (EW) in the reflected spectrum by factors up to $\approx$ 8 for Compton thick (CT) gas and a typical ISM grain size distribution. The enhancement in EW with respect to the reflection continuum is due to the reduction in the reflected continuum intensity caused by the anisotropic scattering behaviour of dust grains. This effect will be most relevant for reflection from distant, predominately neutral gas, and is a possible explanation for AGNs which show a strong Fe K$\alpha$ EW and a relatively weak reflection continuum. Our results show it is an important to take into account dust while modeling the X-ray reflection spectrum, and that inferring a CT column density from an observed Fe K$\alpha$ EW may not always be valid. Multi-dimensional models are needed to fully explore the magnitude of the effect.

Numerical code for multi-component galaxies: from N-body to chemistry and magnetic fields [Cross-Listing]

We present a numerical code for multi-component simulation of the galactic evolution. Our code includes the following parts: $N$-body is used to evolve dark matter, stellar dynamics and dust grains, gas dynamics is based on TVD-MUSCL scheme with the extra modules for thermal processes, star formation, magnetic fields, chemical kinetics and multi-species advection. We describe our code in brief, but we give more details for the magneto-gas dynamics. We present several tests for our code and show that our code have passed the tests with a reasonable accuracy. Our code is parallelized using the MPI library. We apply our code to study the large scale dynamics of galactic discs.

The Pseudo-zodi Problem for Edge-on Planetary Systems

Future direct observations of extrasolar Earth-sized planets in the habitable zone could be hampered by a worrisome source of noise, starlight-reflecting exozodiacal dust. Mid-infrared surveys are currently underway to constrain the amount of exozodiacal dust in the habitable zones around nearby stars. However, at visible wavelengths another source of dust, invisible to these surveys, may dominate over exozodiacal dust. For systems observed near edge-on, a cloud of dust with face-on optical depth 10^-7 beyond ~5 AU can mimic the surface brightness of a cloud of exozodiacal dust with equal optical depth if the dust grains are sufficiently forward-scattering. We posit that dust migrating inward from cold debris belts via Poynting-Robertson drag could produce this "pseudo-zodiacal" effect, potentially making it ~50% as common as exozodiacal clouds. We place constraints on the disk radii and scattering phase function required to produce the effect.

Destruction of Interstellar Dust in Evolving Supernova Remnant Shock Waves

Supernova generated shock waves are responsible for most of the destruction of dust grains in the interstellar medium (ISM). Calculations of the dust destruction timescale have so far been carried out using plane parallel steady shocks, however that approximation breaks down when the destruction timescale becomes longer than that for the evolution of the supernova remnant (SNR) shock. In this paper we present new calculations of grain destruction in evolving, radiative SNRs. To facilitate comparison with the previous study by Jones et al. (1996), we adopt the same dust properties as in that paper. We find that the efficiencies of grain destruction are most divergent from those for a steady shock when the thermal history of a shocked gas parcel in the SNR differs significantly from that behind a steady shock. This occurs in shocks with velocities >~ 200 km/s for which the remnant is just beginning to go radiative. Assuming SNRs evolve in a warm phase dominated ISM, we find dust destruction timescales are increased by a factor of ~2 compared to those of Jones et al. (1996), who assumed a hot gas dominated ISM. Recent estimates of supernova rates and ISM mass lead to another factor of ~3 increase in the destruction timescales, resulting in a silicate grain destruction timescale of ~2-3 Gyr. These increases, while not able resolve the problem of the discrepant timescales for silicate grain destruction and creation, are an important step towards understanding the origin, and evolution of dust in the ISM.

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